LIPPINGOTT'S 




SUCCESSFUL 
CANNING AND 



jf 



OLA POWELL 



o> -^.i. 



"Survey our empire and behold our home! " 

— Byron. 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

HOxME MANUALS 

KUITEU BY 

BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OP HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS, TEACHERS COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING 
AND PRESERVING 

PRACTICAL HAND BOOK FOR 
SCHOOLS, CLUBS, AND HOME USE 

Bt OLA POWELL 

U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICTTLTURE, ASSISTANT IN HOME 
DEMONSTRATION WORK IN STATES RELATIONS SERVIOE 



i,in'i\< (rri's 

HOMK MAXl'ALS 

r..lil.,l In JtKN.IAMIN l{. ANDUKWS. I'm I). 

TKAl'IIKKH (.'OI.MCOK, COI.UMIIIA USIVKHMITV 

( LOTHIXC V()\{ WOMEN 

»Y LAURA 1 15A 1.1)1". H.S. 

TKAIIIKHS (01,1. E<;K. roj.TMUIA UNIVKHSIIY 

^,'■)^ i).if;<s. 7 colurcfl plates, idi illustnitions in text, 
$2.(M) M.t. 

SUCCESSFIL ( AXXIXG AXl) 
PKESERVIXd 

By OLA POWKLL 

DKI'AliTME.ST OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINCTO.V, D. C. 

U)5 pa^cs, 5 foiorcd plates, 17-1 illustrations in text, 
$2.00 net. 
Second Edition, Revised .\.nd E.m..\hged 
L\ PREPARATIOS 

HOrSEAVIFERY 

Hy k. ray b.vldkrso.n. r.s. 

TKACHEUS COLLKCE, COI.UMUI.\ UMVEHSITY 

MILLINERY 

By EVELYN SMITH TOBEY, B.S. 

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA U.MVERSITY 



LipriNCOTT's Home Manuals 

EDITED BY BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, Pii.D. 
Teachers College, Columbia University. 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING 
AND PRESERVING 

PRACTICAL HAND BOOK FOR SCHOOLS, 
CLUBS, AND HOME USE 



BY 

'^-:' : OLAfpOWELL T?'--^-^ ..,. 

_ ^ ft 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUKE, ASSISTANT IN HOME DEMONSTRATION 
WORK IN STATES RELATIONS SERVICE 

Pan and Ink Sketches uy 

ROSE E. GAMBLE 

6 COLORED PLATES, 174 ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT 
THIRD EDITION, REVISED 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






COPYRIGHT, 1017. BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT CriMPANV 



COPYRIGHT, irtlS, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



C01'YUIc;ilT, 1019, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



EUclrotypcd and Printed fry J. B. Lippincolt Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



oc 



©CI.Al53n'37K 



TO 

YOU WHO ARE STRIVING TO '' MAKE 
YOUR BEST better" MY WORK IS 
SYMPATHETICALLY DEDICATED 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 

The reception given the tirst edition of this book by Home 
Demonstration agents, canning club members, housewives and 
instructors in schools, colleges and universities all over the country 
seems to indicate that the publication is timely and that the 
book meets an urgent need. While the author desires to express 
her appreciation of the kindly acceptance of the methods and 
principles taught, she also wishes to keep the subject matter abreast 
with modern science and with recent developments in food utiliza- 
tion. To this end certain supplementary material is submitted for 
the second edition. 

The changes consist of the addition of a new chapter on ' ' The 
Canning of Meat and Sea Foods." Some corrections were made, 
a few new illustrations added and the reference lists at the end 
of the chapters are improved by additions of recent publications 
on food conservation. The remainder of the contents is prac- 
tically identical with that of the first edition. 

The author will be glad to receive, from those using the book, 
suggestions that it is thought would increase its usefulness. 

The Author. 

April, 1918. 



PREFACE 

The canning: and pivserving of food products is an important 
factor in liousehold management and of even greater importance 
in national economy, since the conservation of foodstuffs, from 
the time of production and natural time of consumption to a 
later time, makes for a more varied and adequate diet, and that 
secured at a lower economic cost. Practical success in canning, 
])reserving, drying, and brining turns upon the proper applica- 
tion of the principles of science involved. The great necessity for 
scrupulous care in every step of the whole process is imperative. 
A worker who follows scientific principles and is watchful of 
sanitary conditions will have results that are uniform and sat- 
isfying. It is easy to talk of science in the abstract as applied 
to such problems, but unless one can show just how this science 
demands that the processes be conducted in order to secure suc- 
cess, such applied "science" is mere pretence. 

Women and girls are now facing a most wonderful oppor- 
tunity for service in aiding to produce and conserve foods not 
only for home consumption, but by increasing the commercial 
products for export to Europe. The responsibility of wisely 
utilizing the yield from greatly increased acreage rests in good 
part upon the women and girls. Their w^ork can be simplified 
and made more effective by wisely applying scientific methods. 

It is imperative not only to produce and conserve supplies of 
food, but also to select the most economical means of keeping the 
various food products. In view of these facts, the suitability of 
canning in comparison with other means of keeping food must 
be considered. Since the public has been convinced of the con- 
venience of handling and serving canned foods, canning has be- 
come the most widely used and popular means of preserving large 
quantities of fruits and vegetables. Some products could be 
stored and sometimes prepared more economically in the home 



viii I'REFACK 

if «'i)iiscc\f(| hy (ttlii'i- iiicaiis (if prcscrviif inn, siidi iis dryiiij;, 
l)riiiiM<; and storing. 

rri'stTviii^r I'ddds 1)\ (Iryiii^^ is a very ilisif;il»|i- nicaiis and 
(iiic wliicli is especially iiiip(»rlant lo pi'aetiee ulien llicre exists a 
.sli(irta<re (if tin cans and when {i;lass containers have advanced 
a {j^reat deal in i)iice. 

\'('{;etal)les, sneli as sweet cDtn. ^'■I'ccn strin^r lienns. peas, and 
fiMiits sneh as eliefiies, heiM'ies, peaches, and (if^s, can !'<• dried, 
and in tliis state they will t'ui'nisli variety an<l serve as a substi- 
tute I'oc canned t'mids. 11" pinjx'i-ly dried and stored many foods 
ai'o atti'active and wliolesonie. Such ve^retahles as cauliflower, 
cabhafre, cucuinbeis, and ehayotes ai'e better saved in brine than 
canned. .Many other vegetables may also be kei»t in bi-ine. 
Lefriiines like jjcas and beans, root crops like carrots and beets, 
while attractive when canned in a succulent stage, are more 
nut lit ions and more economically stored when mature. 

The use of various foods in the home sliould be planned in 
advance, so there will be no waste, at the same time having food 
for each meal economically combined and balanced so as to nourish 
each member of the family propei-ly. 

This book has been written to helji rather than to shine, and 
if it does help, the author will be content. 

Or.A POWKF.L. 
July, 1917. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The author wishes to acknowledge her appreciation to those 
who have read and criticized the jnaniiscript ; to Mr. 0. B. Mar- 
tin, Assistant in Charge of Demonstration Club Work, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, for his interest and encouragement 
during the entire preparation of the manuscript; to Miss Mary 
E. Creswell, Assistant in Home Demonstration Work, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, for reading and criticizing the manu- 
script, and for the interpretation of the Home Demonstration 
Work given in Chapter XIX ; to INIiss Rhea C. Scott, Specialist 
in Home Demonstration Work in Louisiana, for her sympathy, in- 
terest, and assistance throughout the preparation ; to Mr. Charles 
T. Dearing, Assistant Horticulturist, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, for reading and criticizing the chapter on " Fruit 
Juices " ; to Dr. M. N. Straughn, Scientific Assistant, Bureau 
of Chemistry, U, S. Department of Agriculture, for reading and 
correcting the chapter on "Jelly IMaking," also for the table for 
using the Brix hydrometer in fruit juices for jelly making; to 
Miss Caroline L. Hunt, Scientific Assistant, Office of Home Eco- 
nomics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for Chapter XVII, 
''Uses of Fruits and Vegetables in the Diet"; to Frantz P. Lund, 
Specialist, States Relations Service, Department of Agriculture, 
for Chapter XXI, "The Canning of Meats and Sea Foods," 
also for valuable contributions to chapter on "Drying Fruits, 
Vegetables, and Herbs"; to Mr. H. C. Thompson, Horticulturist, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, for criti- 
cizing Chapter XV and for the inforaiation on storing garden 
and orchard products; to Dr. L. A. Round, Scientific Assistant, 
Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, for criticizing 
chapter on "Pickling," and for furnishing the table for making 
brines; to Dr. Albert Mann, Plant Morphologist, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, and Dr. Albert Brubaker, Jefferson Medical 



X Aci^Now i.i.I)(;\ii:nj"s 

( '(illi'irc, l'liil;iili||)lii;i, fui- cril ici/iii^'- tin- cliiiijtcr <tii " Hac- 
lcri(»l(ij,'\ as .\p|tlif(| \u ('aiiiiiii^'" ; to .Miss Sarah Wilson, Urcxi-I 
Inst iliitf, IMiiladilpliia. foi- cril ici/iii^' IIk- iiiaiiiisci-ipt and prr 
I'ariirj tlif list of tjiicst ions at tlir cikI of facli cliapti-r from tlic 
puiiit )i\' \ lew of a Iloiiif I'icoiioiiiics tcaclu'r; to Mr. F. II. Hall. 
New ^drk Ivxpci'iiiiriit Station, for the recipe ".Making' ('idif 
\'incL'-ai- on the l-'arm": to the I'. S. I )('part nn-nt of ,\'^MMcnlt nr-- 
for plioto;,naplis, material (pioted, and ideas oht.iined from llie 
following-- pnhlieaf ions : I )epai't nient liulletin \o. L'41. "Studies 
on l"'ruit .Iniees'": I". S. ^'carhook. 11)14. "Apple Syriip and Con- 
centrated Cider,"" l)\- 11. ( '. (lore; l'"ai"mers" liidlctin No. ()44. 
" .Manufactiii'c and I'se of I 'nfermentcd ( irapi^ duii-c, " " hy Cleortrc 
( '. Ilnsmann: ■•"'arnMrs" Unlletin No. l^'I. "'.Meat on the Farm: 
rhitchei'inii'. Curing and Keepinfj-, "" hy Andi-ew Boss; for circu- 
lars from the States IJelalions Sei'vice. Hxtension Work in the 
South, prejiared by Miss .Mary ¥1. Cres'Acll and .Miss ( )la l'o\\«'ll: 
also to Major Lawrence Foot for the usi' of Arkansas Fxteiision 
Bulletin. "ITow to Cure, Smoke, and Keej) Hams. Shouldei-s. and 
liacon": to .M i-. <l. ].. Tielionl. Lonisi;:na State University, for 
results of expei'iments in cauliflower bi'ininjz": to ^Ir. J. A. Ked- 
liead. Jjouisiana State Fniversity, for recipe on ])ei)i)er chow- 
chow: to Mrs. Dora 1). Walker, Assistant State Aprent in Home 
])emonstration AVork in South Carolina, for recipe on "Pimiento 
Ketchui)"; to ^Irs. ^laryaret Jonas, Assistant State Ajrent in 
Home Demonstration Work in Kentucky, for recipe on "Can- 
ning Cucuml)er Slices." A few of the recipes for use of canned 
goods in this book are adapted from such authors as ]\riss Aniui 
Barrows, ^Miss Helen ]\r. Sprinfr. and ]\Iiss Fannie Farmer: some 
are from pi-ivate sources, and others are orijrinal. 

The following books especially were consulted duriiifr the 
preparation of the material: "Household Bacteriolo^-," l»y 
Estelle 1). and "Robert Earle T^uchanan : ''Caiuiinpr and Presei'v- 
ing of Food Products with Bacteriolo-rical Technique." by K. W. 
Duckwall : "Complete Conr.se in Cannin<r." by C. L. l)ennin<j-: 
"Canninjr and How to T'^se Canned Foods." by A. W. and I\. (!. 
Bittiufj: also The Trade, Baltimore, and other iiui<ra/.ines were 
consulted. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 30 

Assistance is acknowledged from all of the commercial con- 
cerns -wliich have so generously contributed illustrations and in- 
formation. Thanks are also due and gratefully given to many 
others who have aided by advice, information, and encourage- 
ment. 

To INIiss Carrie Harrison, of the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, is due the phrase used as the dedication, "To you who 
are striving to make your best better" — which expresses the 
sentiment to-day animating the tens of thousands of canning club 
girls. South and North and West, as it also expresses the perennial 
spirit of the American housewife. 

Ola Powell. 

Jl'LY, 1917. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. History of the Development of Scientific Canning 1 

II. Bacteriology as Applied to Canning 15 

III. Preparation and Equipment 30 

IV. Canning in Tin 5!) 

V. Canning in Glass 71 

VI. Processing — Hot-Water Bath 77 

VII. One Period Processing (Under Steam Pressure) 87 

VIII. Fruit Juices 03 

IX. Fruits for Canning 124 

X. Vegetables for Canning 133 

XI. Preserves 148 

XII. Marmalades, Jams and Conserves 163 

XIII. Jelly Making 175 

XIV. Pickling 189 

XV. Drying Fruits, Vegetables and Herbs 228 

XVI. Preservation of Meats 256 

XVII. Use of Fruits and Vegetables in the Diet 275 

XVIII. Canning Club Organization 282 

XIX. The Business Side of Canning 300 

XX. Teaching Canning and- Related Activities 316 

XXI. Canning Meats and Sea Foods 348 

Appendix 376 

Index 385 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

COLOR PLATES 



PAGE 



PLATE 

Preserves Frontispiece 

I. Attractive Packs of Canned Fruits l-(> 

lA. Attractive Packs of Canned Vegetables 134 

IL Attractive Pickle Packs 204 

III. Food Chart -"G 

ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT 

FIG. 

1. Type of Can Used about 188!) 3 

2. ^lanufacturing Tin Cans To-Day 4 

3. Chart Showing Comparison of Value of Meat Products by States 

in 1891) and 1909 7 

4. A Chart Showing Comparison of Value of Canned and Preserved 

Products by States in 1899 and 1909 8 

5. A Processing Device for Home Canning Proposed in 1889 10 

6. Parasitic Organisms 1(5 

7. Aspergillus fumigatus (Appears on Tomato Sauces and Preserves) 18 

8. liacillus Found on Tomatoes, Showing Flagellffi 19 

9. Penicillium glaucum (x 500) 20 

10. Various Stages of Brewer's Yeast 21 

11. liaciUus butyricus (Rods and Spores Found in Corn) 24 

12. Anaerobic Pea Bacillus 25 

i;i. Bacillus megatherium (Vegetating Forms as Found in Cans of 

Peas ) 2G 

14. (A) Can Burst from Pressure of Gas Generated, {B) A Normal 

Can, (C) A Swell 27 

15. Testing the Jar Seal 28 

Ui. A Group of Useful Utensils for Washing, Peeling, Coring, Grating 

and Slicing Fruit and Vegetal)les 37 

17. Special Equipment Necessary to Obtain ^lost Successful and Accu- 

late Results 37 

18. Utensils Used in Blancliing and in Cooking 38 

19. Tlie Processor and Rack witli Jars Ready to be Sterilized 39 

20. Tongs for Handling Hot Cans 40 

XV 



xvi 1 I.I.I M i: ATioNS 

■Jl. ( «M.|(frutivc ( iiiiniii;.' Miiiiiiii/.t-.> Uilmi ; ( itiiniii}.' (liil) (Jiils in 

AiiMdi ( oiiiii y. .\. I .. lit \\ urU 41 

liJ. North r.iKiliiiii t niiniy .\;.'tiits at rciiri' Institute, |{alci;'li, N. ('. 41 

■J.{. .\ I loincinailc !• I\ -I rap 4.{ 

•J4. Missis.si|)|>i Chili (I'irls I'.iiildiiij,' a I'ly 'I'rap for r)iit <if OfHtr Can 

iiiii;: n 

2.'}. A Ci)n\fni<'nl .\i riin;;ciiiriit for < liit-of-l)(M)r Caniiinjr ■!.'• 

2(1. Caiinin;: Out nf Doors, State Noi iiial Scliool, llairisonlnir;.'. \ a. . . 4(! 
■J7. ('aiiiiiii;r I'onialocs fioni tlic Sclniiar>iii|i I'lnt. State Niniiial Seliool, 

IIanisonl)ur^'. \'a 47 

■JS. A Kerosene Stove w liicli limns ii <!as l-"iaiiie for ileatinj; Soldering; 

Tools 47 

.!!•. A I'ire-I'ot i'liiiiin^' Corn-Cobs foi- lieatin;: 'I'ools. A (lusuiine 

I'ire I'ol oi ( liaicoal r.iiel^et May also lie Csed 4S 

.■?0. A Kolditi^' I'ortaliie I anner 4!t 

HI. Standard Sizes of Tin Containers 4!) 

.■{•2. Size of Cans L'sed for Houseliold l'ur|)oses .">() 

X]. Hand Maeliine for Sealing- Special Sanitary Cans 'yl 

:\4. Capping Steel and Tipping Copper ."i2 

'.]'>. A Croup of dars for Houseliold Use o.'J 

3(i. Comineieial Jars for Special I'roduets 54 

.'?7. Ajjpropriate Containers for Exhibit I'lirposes 55 

;1S. Hand Sealing Maeliine for Glass -Tars Sli 

'.v.). Stoneware dars 5(5 

40. Sorting and (irading Tomatoes Gl 

41. rniforni Tomatoes Together (;2 

42. Scalding Tomatoes, I'sing a Square of Clieesecloth <'>."! 

4;i. Ca.p])ing <i5 

44. Tip])ing ti5 

45. Healing Tools, ('api)ing, and Tipping fiii 

4(i. Students Learning to Can in Tin (>7 

47. Lal)elling OS 

48. Sterilizing Class Jars 72 

49. Packing I'liiforni Pieces of Itliuharh 72 

50. Well-Packed dar of Peaches 7:! 

51. Paddles 74 

52. Canning in (Mass on Cainpvis of Peahody College fcir Teachers. 

Xa>li\ ille. Teiin 75 

53. .\n Ordiiiaiy liucket l'sed as a Processor 7S 

54. \ \Vash-l')oilcr with False I'lottom Makes a Convenient Processor. 7S 

55. Canncr Made of Tulis for Outdoor I'se 7!l 



ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 

56. A Homemade Canner with Brick Fire-Box and Tub 80 

57. Showing Construction of a Hot- Water Canner 81 

58. A Kerosene Stove Burning a Gas Flame ' 82 

59. A Folding Two-Burner Gasoline Stove 82 

60. Tank Fitting Inside 82 

61. A Steam Retort for Home Canning 88 

62. A Steam Retort for Home Canning 88 

63. Another Type, Known as the Water-Seal Canner 88 

64. Another Steam-Pressure Outfit for Home Canning 8!) 

65. Pressure Cooker 90 

66. Coinniercial Retorts where Steam is Piped in from the lioiler. . . 91 

67. Household Fruit-Juice Press 94 

68. Cloth Press Being Twistetl 95 

69. Construction of a Homemade Fruit Press 96 

70. Fruit Press Ready for Use 97 

71. Fruit Press in Use 97 

72. A Homemade Fruit-Juice Filter 98 

73. Bottling Fruit Juice 99 

74. :Making Sealing Wax 101 

75. Screw-Cap Bottle 102 

76. A Hand Bottle Sealing Machine 102 

77. Utensils Used in Making Muscadine Syrup 107 

78. Making Vinegar on the Farm 116 

79. Fig Packs • 127 

80. Attractive Packs of Canned Fruits: (a) Berries, {h) Pears, (e) 

Fruit Salad 127 

81. A Balling Hydrometer 128 

82. A Brass Cup which Can; be Used in Place of Glass Cyliiulor for 

Testing Density of Syrup and Brine . 129 

83. A Demonstration in Canning, Florida 130 

84. Cleansing Rubber Rings 131 

85. Fancy Packs of Canned Vegetables: (A) Baby Beets, (B) Carrot 

Circles, (C) Log-Cabin Pack of Beans, (D) Concentrated Soup 

Mixture, (E) Okra 136 

86. Roasting and Packing Pimientos 141 

87. Attractive Pepper Packs 142 

88. Tomatoes Packed for Salad 144 

89. Vegetables Packed Fresh for Soup ^Mixture 146 

90. Packing Watermelon Rind Preserves 149 

91. A Chemical Thermometer — Centigrade 150 

92. Cooling and Plumping Preserved Fruits 151 



wiii ILMSIIIAIIONS 

i'.i. I'lickiii;; I'n-MTV fd l-'i^'s. W altmi ( «.iiri(y. I'la \Cy2 

;•(. I'lickiii;,' I'l'iiiiut Miitt<T < iiiiiriicirially I.'i.t 

;•:>. A Stfiiin Jacketed 1 'reserving' Kettle Kil 

'.Hi. a ( 'n?iiiiieriial .lellv Sliaiiier I'laccil on a (hair I'.aek \'t> 

'.>7. A ( (iiiimereial .lelly Slraiiier I'laced on a Talile I7(i 

!IS. Aleoliol Test for IVctiii in Kniit .luices 177 

!''•. Ic-.tiii^r I'liiit .luiee for I'cct in 177 

10(1. A Saciliaroineter l-'loatinL' in a .i.">((-e.c. Cyliinler 17.S 

KU. .Iillciihtrr fni- ■j'esliii;.'- I'mit .luices in .Idly Makin;,' l.so 

ill.;. Makin;,' Strawlieny and ()ian;:e I'eetin .lelly j.s-J 

lO.i. First Test Shows Drops of Syrup 1S:J 

ini. linisiied Test Shows .felly Klakinjr or Sheetin^r from tlie Paildie. . 1S:{ 
Ki.'t. A Collee I'ot is a Convenient Utensil for Aleltin;,' and I'ourin;: the 

I'aiallin IH.'i 

IOC. .\ l-ew (Jood (ila.sscs of Jelly Keaily to Store ISli 

107. Students of the State Normal School at Framin;,diam, .Mass.. I're- 
parinjr to IJeeorne Comniuiiity Leaders in the Forxl Conservation 

C'anipai>,ni of 1017 IStl 

lOS. Brine Hydrometer 1!)2 

lot). l'.rinin<r Kquipment 1!»:$ 

110. Sealinj,' a Crock with a Hand of Clieesecloth Dipped into I'.oilin^' 

I'aiallin l!t."> 

111. A Few i'icklc Packs 1!»7 

1 12. Preparation of Ve<i;etables for Mixed Pickles 200 

1 1:3. A Fancy Pack of .Mixed Pickles 202 

1 14. Packiiifr Pickles with Paddles 20:} 

I \'k Makiiif; Dixie Relish and StullinLT Pcjiper Mangoes 204 

1 Hi. I'.rining Onions 21() 

117. I )rying Raspberries 2.'}2 

1 IS. A Homemade Drier 232 

110. Community Drier ]?uilt and Used hy Summer Scjiool Stmlents at 

State Normal Colle.ire. Greensboro, N. C 234 

120. (.1) Homemade Cook-Stove Drier, (li) Sectional Mew. .showin'r 

the Passage of the Heated Air 23(i 

121. Sliced Apples on a Wooden Tray 230 

122. Drying Fig.s in California 240 

123. Drying Peaches in California. Trays Stacked for Finishing Off. 240 

124. Cutting a Pork 201 

12."). Tiimniing Hams 261 

P2G. Picnic Hams Properly Trimmed 261 

127. A Well-Trimmed Ham 262 



ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

128. A Well-Trimmed Breakfast Bacon 2(i-2 

120. (Trimling Sausage Meat the Second Time after Seasoning is Added. 2(17 

l;{0. Roast with Vegetable Macedoine Garnish 278 

l:n. Fruit :\Iacedoine 279 

1 ;52. A Glass of Currant Jelly 279 

l;53A. Canned Asparagus and Pepper Salad 280 

l;i3B. Log-Cabin Salad Made from Canned Beans 280 

l;U. state Home Demonstration Agents Attending the National Meet- 
ing, Washington, D. C, November, 1!)17 284 

1. ■{."). The Home Women, as l^escrihed by D. F. Houston, Secretary 

of Agriculture 280 

l;!(J. A Comfortable Garden Uniform . 287 

i;!7. Another Style of (iarden Uniform 288 

1:58. (iarden L'niform 28!l 

l;5y. A North Carolina Canning Club at Work 304 

140. Properly Labelled Jars 308 

14L Standard Packs in Tin 308 

142. Canning Club Exhibit, North Carolina State Fair, 1915 313 

143. A Cultivated City Vacant Lot in Philadelpliia 322 

144. A Training Farm in Cleveland, Oliio 323 

145. A Cooperative Neighborhood Garden in Philadelphia, Pa . . 324 

146. A St. Louis Community Canning Kitchen 324 

147. A Tomato Plot in Geauga County, Ohio 325 

148. IL^rvest Home Exhibit, Willard School, Cleveland, Ohio, 1910 320 

149. Harvest Home Exhibit in Willard School, Cleveland, Ohio,. 1911. . 327 

150. A Ten-Year-Old Member with Her Exhibit from a Tiny Plot, 

18 X 22 Feet 328 

151. Senior Class at Harrisonburg Normal School, Va., Cultivating 

and Spraying Their Plants 329 

152. Staking and Tying Plants 329 

153. Prize Winning Short Course Girls Pruning Tomato Plants 330 

154. Senior Class Receiving Instructions in Canning 331 

155. Students' Display of Canning Products from the Scholarship Plot. 331 
150. Tomato Plot Cultivated by Senior Class at Hattiesburg Normal 

School, Mississippi 332 

157. Plan of Building Used for Canning at State Industrial College, 

Denton, Texas 332 

158. One of the Training Schools for Voluntary Leaders in the Compre- 

hensive Canning and Drying Campaign Carried on in Nebraska 

in 191 7 333 

1.59. A North Carolina Exhibit of First- Year Products 336 



c II.MS'I'IJATIONS 

id. A ruii>li l'\liil>il in l>>iii-i;iM;i Xil 

;i. A Miniatuif llxliildt Su;,';,'cst(Ml as a I'lan for ii Kiiir 'SM 

iJ. A ( arrliilly I'laiuu-.l Kxliil)!! ."{:«> 

>;t. I'lxliiliil .\la<li' liv Stuili iiIn in limine I )fiii((ii>t rat ion ('(niisf. I'l-alioily 

( ,,ll.-r. lltlT :J4u 

i 1. •Iiiii;;iii;:' * anin <1 luinatocs ami I'caiis 341 

;."). I'liis Cow lias I'nivcd to lie a \\ (•iiijcrfiil I'ri/.i- for tli'iH TtMinosst'e 

Cirl :J42 

(Ii. ( laiilfiiin;; Set : Kiiccliii;: I'a'l ami .\|ii<iii for Tools 24.'{ 

IT. .\liiiiici|ial Kitclifii l-lslalilislicd in ( 'oiiiicct ion witli .Municipal 

Market, Salt Lake City, rtuli ■"M.") 

(iS. Muiiicii.al Market, Salt Lake City, Itaii, 1!H7 M'f 

Ui). The Desirable Temperature for Voohug Meat is :U° to 40° Kalinii- 

heit -^0 

0. .\ Pork Should Not be Cut up I'util it is Tliorouf,Hily Cooled ."{.') I 

1 . I lams Ready to Roast '■i'>'-i 

■2. Kalibit Prepared as for Serving," May JJe Canned .■{07 

;?. A Pure-bred Belgian Hare 308 

4. Sorting Fish for Canning 301) 



SUCCESSFUL 
CANNING AND PRESERVING 



CHAPTER I 

HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC 

CANNING 

Most great industries have existed in some form for a long 
period of time, but the preservation of foodstuffs by canning is 
distinctly a modern art. INIen turned their thoughts at a very 
early time to devising means of preventing foods from spoiling, 
but until the beginning of the nineteenth centuiy the only 
methods employed to this end were diying, pickling, smoking, 
and preserving in sugar. 

French Government First to Discover Method. — The wars 
of Napoleon w^ere directly responsible for the discoveiy of the 
efficacy of the hermetic sealing of foods in order to keep them. 
Near the end of the eighteenth century a prize was offered by 
the French Government for the most practical method of pre- 
ser-wng foods for sea service and militaiy stores. M. Nicholas 
Appert, of Paris, was stimulated by this offer of a reward and 
1)egan experimenting. He worked from 1795 until 1809, when 
he submitted to his government a treatise on the means of pre- 
serving foods. During this year he was awarded the prize of 
twelve thousand francs. In 1810 he published the results of his 
experiments. 

Appert's Method. — His method was to enclose fruit, after 
heating it, in a glass bottle, which was then corked and sub- 
jected to action of boiling water. The bottle was placed in a 
water-bath and was heated very gradually for vaiying lengths of 
time, depending upon the character of the food. Appert did not 
know why foods kept when treated according to his method. He 
believed that air was the destructive agent and that its exclusion 



2 SrCC'KSSl IL CANMNC AM) rUKSKRVING 

aloiH' wiuild |>t('si'i-vt' I'(mm| wliich li;ii| lucti coukcd. In liis 
treatise lie ui-tite: '' Ahsdiiite priN.il inn ot' t Ik; cniitiict of external 
air is iK'ecssary alter llie iiilenial aii* is reiuler'cd of no elTeet ])y 
propel* application of heat Ity means of a water-liatli." 

Past Experiences a Background for Work. — Appcrl's wide 
expei-ieuee in life exeejlentlv ecpiipped liini to solve the prrdtlt-ni to 
which he had appliecl himself so devotedly. He liad for nearly 
lifty xeai's heen ile;ilin;r with \ai'ions lines of food pi-escrvation, 
\\(»i-l<in^' as a j)ieklei', a ])reserver, an expert confectioner, a 
l>i-ewei'. a distillei', and a. chef, lie contiinied liis efforts, usin^ 
many diffrrent producls. and so pei-feclfd the art of canning.' in 
{^rlass that it is diflicult to surpass it even in these times with all 
our modern ajipliances. His simple utensils and process-room 
iiii^'ht provoke a smile to-day, for science had in his day not 
really tletermined why canned food kept; though his explanation 
has proved to be wi'on^, his methods, oddly encnigh, Avorked. 

Investigations Made by Guy Lussac. — Conclusions drawn 
by Ciuy Lussae, an eminent French chemist, who was employed 
by his government to investigate this mattei-, coincided with 
what appeared to be the controlling factoi- in the ])ractice of can- 
ning, lie reported that sjioiling of food was due to a series of 
oxidation changes, and that by excluding the air these changes 
could be prevented and the food saved. This theoiy was ac- 
cepted, and the true explanation of the matter was not known 
until the advent of the new science of bacteriology. Since the 
jtiinciple of Appert's methods has been shown by time and ex- 
perience to be correct, it is that on which all canning aiul \n'o- 
serving have since been done, lie is regarded as the father of 
an art which has i)roved a boon to all mankind. The French 
(jioverinnent has erected a momnuent to jierpetuate his memory. 
His method Avas so simple that others began using it very soon, 
and before 1880 it was put into eommei'cial ]iractice. Appert used 
an open water-bath for heating his bottles, and this method is 
one in common use to-day in home canneries. This information 
on canning was desired primarily for military and naval stores, 
but the advantage of having food preserved in this manner at- 
tracted considerable attention to its use in the home. 



HISTORY OF Scientific canning 



Canning Begun in England. — In 1807 a paper was sub- 
mitted by i\lr. Sadding to the English Society of Arts, under 
the title "A Method of Preserving Fruits Without Sugar for 
House and Sea Stores." It is believed that this knowledge 
of the general principles was obtained from Appert while 
Sadding was travelling in France. 



About the same time Peter Durrand F''''S!^^iv'?j^!i^^v^^^^^ 

^. • ^ . . . ^ .... ^^••;:#^vix^??^r:^d 










obtained a patent in England for 
preserving meat, fruit, and vegetables 
in tin cans. Durrand is sometimes 
spoken of as the father of the tin can. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
TIN CONTAINER 

The canning industry from this 
time on depended a great deal 
on the can; in fact, it took its 
name "canning" from it. The ap- 
paratus for manufacturing tin cans 
Avas at first very crude. The bodies 
were cut with shears and the 
side seams made with a plumb 
joint and then soldered together. 
A weight was pulled up to the 
ceiling and allowed to drop upon 
a sheet of tin in order to cut t., , t, ^ a 

rui. 1. — Type of can used 

tops and bottoms of the cans. The '^t'out isso. (this drawing was 

'^ made from one used in Com- 

die was cast on the under side P'^te Course in Canning," by 

C. L. Denning.) 

of the weight, and the opposite die was cast in a piece 
of metal below. The forming of these pieces depended on 
the weight being properly guided, therefore the process was 
slow and difficult. Heads or caps were made to set into 
the body and were soldered in place by hand in a very- 
primitive way. Necessity has never more truly proved its 
title, "The Mother of Invention," than in the canning line 
(Fig. 1). These cans were about the size of a No. 2 can, 
except that they were taller. From the crude homemade 






■.■••Jifv.-.;-, •;.•.: 




4 SUlCKSSIl I. ( .\NM\(; AND I'HEsi;k\in<; 

(■x|uTiiin'iit;il ;ippiir;itns tlifn- li.-ivf hoi-n drvi-lopfd for the 
piirp»»S(' (if tilt' (••■iiiiK-i- all sorts ol' inailiincry .iml appli- 
aiifi's. Now all |>arts of the call an' made liy lal»or-saviii<^ 
niacliiiicrv aiid |)tit t<nrctlicr hy iiiacliiiicry. 'I'liis iiictlHMl reduces 
tlifir cost eiioniioiisly (V'l'r^. '_*). Comimrri.d houses aliau- 
doiied <.dass in ravur nl' tin cans lucaiisf tlicy would 
witlistaiid c'XtreiiK'S ol' Uiiipt-iatuic and the iuilial cost 




Fig. 2. — Alanuiarturinc tin rans to-day. (Heinz Co.) 

was less. The transportation both ways on the tin can 
was less costly and the loss from breakagre was eliminated. 
'I'in is probably the container used almost nniversally by 
canners now, although glass is popular in tlie more exclusive 
canning and preserving kitchens where very choice special 
products arc put up into fancy packs. 

The Real Cause of Putrefaction. — During the time of TjTidall 
and Pasteur, 1822 to 1895, the real cause of putrefaction was 



HISTORY OF SCIKNTIFIC CANNING 5 

determined to be living microorganisms which come in contact 
with the material which "spoils." To these men belongs the 
honor of discovering the fundamental principles involved. Now- 
ada^'s it is understood that the mere presence or absence of air in 
a can is a matter of no importance in itself. Air plays no im- 
portant part in putrefaction save as a carrier of living things, 
which are conmionl}^ and popularly spoken of as germs, microbes, 
microorganisms, or bacteria. All of these terms are used some- 
what indiscriminately and all mean practically the same thing. 

DEVELOPMENT OP COMMERCIAL CANNING IN AMERICA 

The canning industry was established in the United States by 
Ezra Daggett, in 1819. He had learned the trade before emi- 
grating to this country, and packed salmon, lobsters, and oysters 
in New York. The records show that "William Underwood packed 
preserves and table condiments in glass as early as 1821, in Bos- 
ton, and in 1835 he packed tomatoes in glass. The records also 
show that William Underwood shipped his goods to South 
America in 1821. In 1837 Isaac Winslow began experimenting 
with the canning of com in Portland, Maine. There is probably 
no earlier record of canning in tin in this country than the work 
of Isaac Winslow. Corn was first canned on the cob. This 
proved unsatisfactory on account of the bulk, and it was thought 
the cob absorbed some of the sweetness from the kernels. INIaine 
was the home of the corn canning, and is still so considered. The 
first cannery in Baltimore was opened about 1840. The canning 
of com, tomatoes, and fruits was started in Cincinnati, Ohio, 
about 1860. The growth of the industry was very rapid. New 
canneries sprang up like mushrooms in various parts of the coun- 
try, and unskilled men vied with the older packers in the quantity 
put out. This rapid growth resulted in the formation of Can- 
ners' Associations, the development of which led to new and better 
methods of work. 

The question of preservation of food is one of the most inter- 
esting and important in the whole field of applied science. H. L. 
Russell, of the University of Wisconsin, was the first man in this 
country to apply the science of bacteriology to canning, in 1895, 



C srcH'Kssi'i L ( \\M\«; AM) i'i;i>i;i:\ INC 

;iii(l ill iMMi. I'ldf. S. ( '. I'lTscott. (iT tin- MassacliusL'tts Institute 
(if 'rrcliiii)l();.'-.\ . and W. 1^. riidcfw ood, cd' I'.dston, bcf^ail iiivcstiga- 
liiKis i-t'<,Mi"(liMj; the l)act('ri()l()<;ical tccliniciiic of caimiiitr. rntil 
tins tiiiif tilt' (•(tiiniici'cial art dt" catniiii^ was a mixed lot ol" theory 
hedi^'cd idnint liy iiiyslri-y. 

Theory of Canning Not Understood. — Factoiies were jeal- 
ously [guarded, it was aiiimst iiiiiiossihle for an outsider to pain 
adnussion. 'i'lie cannff I'cally knew so little ahout tlir scienee 
that he felt coiiipellcd to {^uard earefully his iL'iiorance. He 
tried to throw a jrlainour of secrecy over nearly- t-verN' inove- 
luent simply througrh caution to protect what little good infornui- 
tion he possessed ici^arding the process of canning. The uncer- 
tainty antl the possibilities that losses might occur weri^ a constant 
source of worry and uneasiness to a great man.\' who were en- 
gaged in the canning business. The general public had a very 
vague knowledge in regard to bacteria. ]\Iost people associated 
them only with disease. Canncrs were loath to ha\(' the sid)ject 
of canning connected with germs, because tliey believed this 
would frighten people, who would then not wish to eat any more 
canned goods. If a season came in which bacteria seemed un- 
usually prevalent, the cannere considered it most mysterious and 
attributed it to the "strange season." Since science has brought 
to us the knowledge of microorganisms the lines of attack have 
beeome more clearly marked, and with the modern weapons to 
condjat the foe we can fight the Avar against ])aet<'i-ia with safety 
and assurance of success. The pi'ineipal weapon of defence 
against Itaetei-ial action is the i)raetiee of most scrupulous cleanli- 
ness; just as modern surgery depends upon absolute cleanliness. 
Like most other manufacturing industries carried on by enter- 
])rising men, the process of canning has undergone complete 
change as the scientific principles involved have come to be under- 
stood and to be given a controlling power over the practical pro- 
cesses involved. 

Location of Industry (Figs. 3 and 4). — Large (pumtities of 
vegetal)les, meat, and fish are presei-ved along the Atlantic Coast; 
much of thesalimui sui)ply is ennned i?i Oi'e^dii and Wasliiiiulon ; 
meats are put up largely in Chicago and Kansas City, and fiuits 



HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING 



and vegetables of the liigliest grade are packed in California, 
Hawaii, and New York. Maryland and New Jersey rank very 
high in the production of canned tomatoes. Maine and Illinois 
lead in corn canning. The development in the canning industry 
m the ten-year period is shown in the accompanying charts and 
is largely due to improved machinery. 



MILLIONS OP DOLLARS 



Illinois 

Kansas 

NevO Yofh 

Nebraska 

Missouri 

lovfa 

Pennsi/lOam 

Ohio 

Indiana 

MassachuseHs 

Texas 

NeiOJersey 

California 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Wash ington 

Mary I and 

tlickijan 



B^ffl 






^^^i 



wm/n/Mtt/M/ze/mmtmiuiiumwinm. 






P 

F 
P 



i9o<} 
IB 99 



Fig. 3. — Chart showing comparison of value of meat products by states in 1899 and 1909, 
(Thirteenth Census of U.S., Vol. VIII, 1910.) 

A striking illustration of growth in the canning industry is 
the rapid development of the pineapple canning in the Hawaiian 
Islands indicated by the following table: 

1901 2,000 cases 

1908 410.000 cases 

1913 1,607,000 cases 

This volume of business is the combined output of ten sepa- 
rate companies. These results show the quick appreciation of 
a really good product by the consuming public. In the first can- 



SL'CCKSSFi I. cANMNc; AM) i'i;i;si;ii\ I N(; 



iiiiij; lari^'i' i|iiarilil irs of juice wci-i- lost ulicn tin- priiiif ripe fruit 
was slici'd. K'cciiilly it lias Im-cu (liscoNcrt'd lliat. flic juice con- 
tains seven \)cv cent of su^'ur and can he concent i-ated and used 
foi- syrup in canning; pinra]»ple, liuis saving tiie purcli.ise of large 
quant it ies nf sujrar. 

Better Equipment Invented. — Wlien corn caninnf? was first 
bc<;un, tlie corn was cut I'roni tlie eoh witli a coinnion case-knife; 



MII.IylONS OF DOIJ.ARS 







California 

New Vbrh 

Man/ 1 and 

Washington 

PennsylCaniQ 

Indiana 

Maine 

Illinois 

Massacnuselis 

Michiqan 

Wisconsin 

Ohio 

NeuJ Jersey 

Oreg'on 

lov^a 

Ve lav) are 

Hentuckij 

Virqinia 

Missouri 

Colorado 

Minnesoia 

Utah 



Via. 4. — A chart showinc comparison of value of canned and preserved products bv states 
in 189'J and 1909. (Thirteenth Census of U. S., Vol. VIII. 1910.) 

then came the use of a curved form shaped to the ear. At this 
stage of deveh)pment "cutters'' were tlie most numerous body of 
workmen about the factory. For instance, in lS(i!), 800 hands 
wei-c employed in a faetoiy : 'My) were cutters and alxmt 100 busk- 
ers. Machines run by hand came in about 187"). Power machines 
came into use about 18S6. ]\Iuch improvement has been made on 
all machinery since that date. In canning corn, for example, 
among the most important pieces of machinery arc those which 



HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING 9 

husk the corn, take off the silk, cut kernels from the cob, fill the 
cans, seal the cans, put on labels, etc. Different machines are made 
to fit into the work of other macliines so the various processes of 
handling one product will be continuous. These machines are now 
perfected in all details and are operated automatically. The 
capacity is immense for carrying products through the different 
departments in a veiy short time. 

Processing Methods (Fig. 5). — In the early days of this in- 
dustry the open-kettle method was used. The highest obtainable 
temperature was 212^ Fahrenheit, the temperature of boiling 
water. It was soon realized that a higher temperature would kill 
more "germs" and insure more successful results in a shorter 
length of time. A little later a higher degree of temperature was 
secured by the addition of common salt to the water-bath. Fol- 
lowing this another method of obtaining a higher degree of heat 
came into favor. It was found that by adding chloride of cal- 
cium to water the specific gravity of water was increased and a 
temperature of 240° Fahrenheit was obtainable without ebulli- 
tion. The advantage claimed for this method was that it was 
fuel-saving and labor-saving. Under this process, however, the 
cans became discolored and considerable expense was incurred in 
cleaning them. With the coming of the ''steam- jacketed" copper 
kettles and the "closed-process" kettle these previously described 
methods of sterilizing were abandoned, except for the plain water- 
bath, which is still in use. The steam- jacketed kettle is one in 
which a kettle is surrounded by a metallic chamber like the com- 
mon double-boiler kettle, except that the outer chamber is air- 
tight and superheated steam is piped into it from a boiler, thus 
raising the temperature of the cooking kettle considerably above 
212°. Such steam-jacketed kettles are commonly used in large- 
quantity cookery, as in hotel kitchens and industries like dyeing 
and soap making, as well as in canning. The closed-process kettle 
is simply a kettle for boiling which can itself be closed tightly so 
as to prevent all escape of steam; the heat which ordinarily 
escapes from the water as the steam arises is thus kept within the 
water and in the superhc^ated body of steam in the closed cham- 
ber above it, and so the temperature" rises above 212° With the 



10 



Sl'CCKSSFl I. ( ANMNC WD i'i;i:sKi;\ I \<; 



irit rodiict idii of slcaiii rclnrts in ISHT ihf tirin- for stciMli/in;.' was 
sli<irti'iH'(i. Next caiiH' till- |»rt'st'iit style ni" kctllr and di-y stcarii. 
Latest Processor. — 'I'lic ajrilalin*; cdnkcr is jxTJiaps the latest 
dcvcldpiiiiiit. liidUy stafcli products an- pixtr condMctofs of 
licat. and it i"f((iiii-fs a Ikiij,'- tiiiM' I'ni* tin- heat to pciift catc to llie 
(•(•iitci" (d" the coiitcnts. Tlio time for pi'occssin^ <'aii !)»• frn-atly 
inliict'd bv c'ausiii<^ the cans to I'oU over and (jvcr in such a man- 




Fig. ."). — A processing device for home carmine l)roposc'(l in ISSO. 



ner that tlio li(piid i)rosent within eacli can w ill Ix- carried inoro 
quickly through the mass and the contents will be gently uioved 
to the inside surface of the can, where they become heated more 
rajjidly. It is iiecessary that this agitation Ix- slow and even. 

Other Labor-saving Devices. — There are machines for almost 
every nU-p of the handling;- of different fruits and vegetables for 
canning; conveyors, sheet-iron tuiniels where jets of watei' are 
constantly running to wash the pi'oduct. sorters, peelers, slicers, 
fillers, and calipers; these and many other machines are avail- 



HISTOllY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING H 

aL)le, and all are labor-saving and space-saving as well. The result 
of this application of machines and power is that a great quantity 
of products can be handled in a very short time. 

Greater Demand for Canned Foods. — In 1890 there were 
about one thousand establishments engaged in this industry and 
the value of the output was a little less than $45,000,000. In 
19 IG the output for domestic consumption was thirteen times this 
amount. The consumption of canned products has increased 
yearly, largely because the prices have been reduced as the com- 
mercial process has been perfected, thus coming within reach of 
a larger number of people. It has been said that in 1857 a quart 
of tomatoes sold for 50 cents and a quart of peaches for $1. 
Nathan Winslow sold to Samuel S. Pierce, of Boston, one dozen 
canisters of preserved corn for $4 in February, 1848. The public 
has been informed through reports and investigations and 
through the advertising world that the conditions under which 
reliable concerns work are sanitary and that canned food prod- 
ucts are as desirable in their place as are fresh foods ; the more 
the public becomes aware of these facts the greater is the demand 
for this class of food. Reduced prices and a buying public 
educated to the real value of canned foods explain the greater 
demand for them. 

Consumption and Estimated Value of Canned Foods in 
1916. — A report which was given at the annual meeting of the 
National Canners' Association in Louisville, Ky., in Februaiy, 
1916, will be of interest here to show, to some extent, the use of 
canned food in the United States. Three billion cans of food are 
retailed yearly at about $600,000,000. The consumption of com 
is estimated to be 100,000,000 cans annually ; of peas, 200,000,000, 
and of tomatoes, 350,000,000. New York City spends yearly at 
retail over $64,000,000 for milk, .$45,000,000 for bread, $45,000,- 
000 for eggs, and for canned goods over $150,000,000 — almost as 
much as for milk, bread, and eggs combined. In 1916 the report 
of the Canning Club girls and Home Demonstration Clubs in the 
South showed 3,318,481 containers put up for home use and for 
the market. In the North and West 7903 Canning Club members 
put up 201,306 containers in 1916. This is, of course, only a very 



1-j SrcCKSSFlL CANMNC AM) I'KKSKUNI N(; 

small ])('i-f»'iita^'i' ol' the full aiiioiiiit (•!' such pi-oilm-ls jiuL up ia 
tilt' liuincs ol" tlu* count vy. Tlic (■coiiouiic si^'iiilicuMce of the use of 
camicd foods lias grrown 1o such proporlious lliat it cainiot be 
ij^Mori'd by the housewife or by (he nation. 

It is important to have vej,'etablos and fruits in the diet, but 
it is impossible to have them fivsh at all seasons, espeeially with 
I lie ditliculty of distribution and transportation of foods in thickly 
populated areas. The i)r(tbleiii of extending: the sui)i»lies from 
sea.son to sea.son must necessarily be met l)y i)reservatioii of foods. 
The composition and tlu'ii- iiniiortance in the diet place them 
among staple foods i-allier tlian as accessories in the diet. A 
judicious aiiKiuiit of fruits, vegetables, meats, and whole cereals 
mingled witii llie canned products will doubtless furnish the 
necessary supply of "vitamins," growth-promoting substances, 
which recent investigations indicate are essential to good health. 

United States Government Publication. — The Ignited States 
Government has man}' persons employed to Avork out .some of the 
]ii-oblems that pei-plex the preservers of food. These people have 
been studying for years and experimenting along these lines. Bul- 
letins have been printed on the subject which can be secured 
free, or at a very small cost. ^lany hou.sekeepers are now eagerly 
.seeking this information. Laws also have been pas.sed to attempt 
to regulate the methods of preparation of canned foods. People 
have gradually acquainted themselves with the waj'S in which 
bacteria work for our good or ill, and it is no longer necessary 
to whisper when discussing their effect on canned goods. It is 
known that useful "germs" greatly outnumber the harmful 
ones. 8ince we could not exist without the action of bacteria, we 
nuist regard tliem as our friends rather than our foes, even though 
there are a few si)ecies which might do ug injury, 

QUESTIONS 

1. W'liat proof can you give tliat cannod goods liold to-day a large place 

in tlie food supply of our large cities as well as in portions of the 
country remote from the centers of population ? 

2. Why is it impossible to collect statistics of tin- value of the foods 

canned annuallv in llic Fiiitod States? 



HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING 13 

3. Why is the study of tho canning of foods a legitimate work for the 

United States Government? 

4. What large classes in the community may be helped by the knowledge 

of canning disseminated by the government? 

5. What forces have made possible the extensive use of canned foods? 

6. What has determined the locations of the canneries? 

7. State chronologically the different jirocessing methods used, giving a 

brief explanation of each. 

8. What is the principle to which each process conforms? 

9. To what science are we indebted for the explanation of the results ob- 

tained in canning? 

10. What is the meaning of putrefaction? What is its cause? 

11. To whom are we indebted for the explanation of putrefaction? To 

wiiom indebted for the application of scientifie explanations to can- 
ning? 

12. To whom are we indebted for the discovery of canning? What his- 

torical events led to this discovery? Give approximate date. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bitting, A. W. and K. G., " Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," 

I9I6. National Canners' Association, Washington, D. C. 30 cents. 

2. Bureau of the Census, Statistics for Canning and Preserving, 1910, 

Thirteenth Census of the United States Manufacturers, 1909. Can 
be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government 
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 5 cents. 

3. CoRBETT, Florence R., " Fruits and Vegetables," Technical Education 

Bulletin No. 18, February, I9I3. Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, New York City, N. Y. 10 cents. 

4. Deming, Olin Lee, " Science and Experiment as Applied to Canning," 

1902. Sprague Canning jMachinery Company, Chicago, 111. 

5. DuCKWALL, Edw^ard Wiley, " Canning and Preserving of Food Products 

with Bacteriological Technique," 1905. Pittsburgh Printing Com- 
pany, Pittsburgh, Pa. $5. 
G. Fisher, Irving, and Fisk, E. L., " How to Live," 1915. The Funk & 
Wagnalls Company, New York City, N. Y. $1. 

7. Hunt, A. L., " Canning and Preserving," Twelfth Census of the United 

States Manufacturers, vol. 9, part 3, 1900, pages 461 to 514. Super- 
intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, 
D. C. 

8. Mendel, Lafayette Benedict, " Changes in the Food Supply and 

Their Relation to Nutrition," 1916. Yale University Press, New 
Haven, Conn. 50 cents. 

9. Mendel, Lafayette Benedict, " Childhood and Growth," 1906. The 

F. A. Stokes Company, New York City, N. Y. GO cents. 



M SrcCKSSKl I. CANNINi; AM) I'KKSKKX I N(; 

l(t. SiiiUMW. lliMtv ( i.Ai-p. •• Ko.mI I'i«.(1ii.|-<." l!t|l. Mir Maiinillan ('..m- 

pariy. New York ( ity, N. ^■. $:i.J,"i. 
1 1. SiiKiVKic. .1. Ai.Kxi s. •• l'iiiiii|.|.|f Caiiniii^r Industry of (li«' \\..tl.i." 

Itiiriau of Forc'ipii iiiui Doiiicstic Cotiiirifrcc, U. S. Dc'iiartnicnt of 

I. a 1 IDF. 
li'. Till' I'itTci' l'iil)lishiii;jf ('oiii|taiiy. Inc., Tlir \(ilii»t(il I'nttd Sfiujdzinc, 

I- \»- . .i 'II ■_l.. f Jl l.>i__.i X' X- 1 /~f i XT tr .Xi -n 



I' I itTci' I iil)lishin;j: I oin|taiiy. Inc., //ic \ationnl itiod MiKjnzme, 
•l."i WV.st'l'hirty-fourtli Street, New York City, X. Y. $l.r>0 a yeur. 
f ]"ratle Coinpany, italt iinorc, .Md., The Canninr/ Trade (a ina^azino) , 
alinanac of tlie canninp industry. $3. 

4. XiLTK. IJKUMAX TiiKOKOHK, aiid Vani)ki{Iiii.t, Sadik I'.iKn. •■ ImmkI In- 
dustries," lOlG. Cliemical Pul)li.sliing Company, Kaston, Pa. $2. 

•">. \\ai:i). .Xktkmas. fJrocers' Kn(yrl()i);edia. lOIl. Artenias Ward, oO 
liiio:! S(juare, New York (ity. N. Y. ij^lo. 



1.;. 11 
14 



CHAPTER II 
BACTERIOLOGY AS APPLIED TO CANNING 

Scientists have established beyond a doubt that the decom- 
position of food is due to the presence of living organisms which 
cause fermentation and putrefaction. These organisms are 
molds, yeasts, and bacteria and belong to the lowest order of 
l)lants. The presence of all or any of these types of germs on food 
is the principal cause of its spoiling. Similar microorganisms 
exist in teeming millions and are present everywhere. They are 
in the water we drink, in the soil, floating about in the air we 
breathe, and on all objects. All of these except mold are so 
minute as to be invisible without the aid of a microscope. Molds, 
yeasts, and bacteria differ from the plants with which we are 
more familiar in that they are unable to manufacture their own 
food out of the air and the soil as the green plants do. These 
types contain no chlorophyll or green coloring matter, and must 
therefore get their food from substances already built up by 
higher plants or animals. These colorless plants are generally 
grouped by botanists under the division "fungi," though the 
bacteria are strictly separated from the yeasts and molds. Both 
the chlorophyll-bearing and the colorless plants embrace those 
tliat are parasites and others that are saprophytes. The para- 
sites live upon live animals and plants; the saprophytes live 
upon dead animals and plants', and it is this class, therefore, 
which concerns us in canning. 

Some people do canning and preserving of foods successfully 
with little knowledge of these germs, but to know something about 
these minute forms of life, which are so abundant eveiywhere, 
will make the work more interesting. When it is understood 
why foods keep, uniform results may be more easily obtained. 

Molds. — The molds, unlike yeasts and bacteria, are visible to 

15 




Fia. 0. — Parasitic organisms. In the follnwiiiK ficuros lia denotes aerial hyphae; sp, 
sporangium; ?y, zygospore; ej, exosporium; 7HJ/, mycelium; mc, mucilage; cl, columella; en, 
endogonidia. 

Fio. A. Spore-bearing hyphse of 3/ i/cor. growing from horse-dung. Fig. B. The same, 
teased out with needles (A, 4). Figs. C, D, E. Successive stages in the development of the 
sporangium. Fki. F. Isolated spores of Mucor. Fici. G. Germinating spores of the same 
mold. Fig. H. Successive stages in the germination of a single spore. Figs. I.J.K. Suc- 
cessive phases in the conjugative process of Mucor. Fig. L. Succe.'«sive stages observed 
during ten hours in the growth of a conidiophore of Pent<n7/tum in an object-glass culture(D, 4). 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNING 17 

the naked eye. Tliey are considered first l)ecause most house- 
keepers and students in liome economics are familiar with them in 
their growing stage. Molds require oxygen, considerable moisture 
and heat, and use sugar and starches as food ; moreover, they can 
grow in the presence of acids. They thrive in damp, dark places 
where there is little or no circulation of air. Because they have 
the ability to grow in acids molds readily attack fruits and to- 
matoes. At first in general appearance molds are gray, soft, and 
tluffy; later they show colors, as blue, green, brown, black, or 
yellow. The color appears when the molds are reproducing. 
Under a microscope the minute, thread-like mass of mold found 
upon jelly or bread shows a mycelium or root-like structure ex- 
tending into the food upon which it grows. The upward-growing 
branches bear special spore organs which contain thousands of 
seed-like spores. The spores drop from the mold plant and float 
AUiseen to other places. They grow with great rapidity. The 
Rinds reproducing yellow and green spores are sometimes found 
on jellies, preserves, and dry meats. They are first green and 
then yellow. Brown mold is found in putrefaction of fruit. Cer- 
tain types of food materials, particularly the fruits, are most apt 
to be attacked by molds such as Penicillium and Aspergillus (Figs. 
7 and 9). These molds do not develop unless there is oxygen pres- 
ent. These mold spores being abundant in the air, it is impossible 
to leave food exposed without having a number of living spores 
fall upon it. If fruit is opened, partly used, and the jar is simply 
covered again, the fruit will soon mold, due to the mold spores 
which enter while it is open. If this fruit is to be kept it should 
be reheated and sealed to exclude the air. Usually the mold is 
confined to the surface, but the decomposition products of its 
growth frequently penetrate and flavor the whole mass. At one 
time it was believed by some housekeepers that a thick layer of 
mold on the top of crocks and jars containing jams and pre- 
serves was a good indication of its keeping, because this layer of 
mold excluded the air from the contents in the lower part of the 
container. When these jars were opened it was necessary to 
throw away several inches of the food which was next to the mold 
and sometimes nearly half of it. As the food stood with this 
2 



18 



siicKssiri, ( ANMNC AM) I'l! i;si;i;\ I .\(; 



heavy Ia,\( r (if iikiM the dddis and llavm- iMTiiH'atcd the Nalaiice 
(»r llic coiitciits (d" llir jar, and I lie pj-odud wlicii served was not 
so palataMe and w liolesonie as it would liavc liren liad it lieeii 
seali'd air-ti^ld and processed when first put up (Fijr. S). In 
a(Mition, all waste oi' food is thus avoided. 

Molds are easily killed Ity moist heat. A temjierature of 100° 
to ]S()° Fahi-eidieit will l)e sufficient to kill all mold. AVhen food 




Fig. 7. — Aspergillus /umiualun uppears on tomaio sauces and preserves). 

is proi)crly processed after packinjr into jars or cans, and sealed 
immediately to protect it, mold will not appear so lony- as the con- 
tainers remain air-tight. If the toj) of jelly is wiped otV with 
vinegar this wmII kill some of tlie spores. Sometimes a circular 
di.sc of paper Avhich has been dipped into vinegar is placed over 
the jelly before the cap is placed on the glass. Often a thin layer 
of melted paraflin is jionred ovei- the lop of the jelly. Either 
method will kill an\- mold spores which might '.ave fallen on the 



BACTEHIOLOnY OF CANNlNTr 



10 



jelly while it was open and coolintr. Immediately after so treatinj? 
the jelly it should be eovered to exclude the air (Figs. 6 and 9). 
Yeast. — The yeast plants are not difficult to control in can- 
ning. Yeasts are the natural agents which produce fermenta- 
tion. As this word is commonly used it refers to the process by 



d 


■ 


i • 




''V 




^ 


^ ^ 












Fig. 8. — Bacillus found on tomatoes, showing flagellse, thread-like appendages. 



which alcoholic liquors are produced from sugar solutions. Fer- 
mentation is the basis of producing stimulating beverages. 
Methods of raising yeast bread are also examples of fermentation. 
It is always the sugars present in these substances which undergo 
the fermentation. 

Yeasts are one-celled plants. They reproduce by budding; 
that is, by the growth of a bud on the side of the cell. This bud 



lu'coiiics fully (lov('l<>i)('<l very (|ui('kly iiiid soparalfs itself fnoii 
llio iiKillifr-ccll, jiikI after attaiiiiii;,'' the adult sta;r<' Ite^'ins to 
re[ii-(i(|iice itsi'lf ill a siiniiai" iiiaiiner. Yeasts, uinler a<lv<Tse eou- 
(litions, souK'tinics i-epfoduee by forniiufr spoi'es within the cells. 
The eell liursts and the wind ean'ies the spoi-es ever,\\vliei-e. The 
use of _\-east in hi'ead making'' is familial'. Winn 'j-iNeii food (in 
form of su^^ai'j, wacmth, nioistiu'e, and air, yeasts <ri'o\v, hi-eakinij 
up the su<,''ai' and j>i'odu('injj: a <ras, called carhon <lioxide, and 
alcohol. l>id)l)les of this eras 7iiav be seen when a can of fruit fei-- 



Fio. 9. — -Penicillititn glaucum (a coiiiuion uioldKX 500). (Frcnkcl and Pfciffer.) 

2ncnts. Since yeasts are abundant in tlie air and nn the skins 
of fruits and ve<i:etal)les, it is always necessary both to destroy 
them on the food being canned and to prevent their further en- 
trance into the pi'eserved foods by sealing the containers air- 
tight. Yeasts are easily killed by moist heat at a temperature of 
160° to 190° P"'ahrenheit. OccasioiuUly spores, which are more 
resistant than active plants, may be present. The oruanisins de- 
scribed above are not difficult to control (Fig. 10). 

Bacteria. — P>acteria are the most serious foes to combat in 
canniui:- because tlu'\' ai'e more dilTicnlt to kill by heat than 
eithei- mold.s or yeasts. 'J'liey are i)re.sent everywhei'e in ennnnnus 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNING 



21 



iminbers. They are also unicellular plants, but ai-e smaller than 
yeasts. A young- bacterium cell attains full size and acquires the 
capacity to reproduce itself much more rapidly than any other 
form of life. So rapid is their reproduction that a single bac- 
terium may produce millions more in a few hours. The rapidly 
multiplying bacteria often form more or less colorless viscous 
masses or a thin scum float- 
ing on the liquid in which 
they are growing. Similar 
masses form the green scum 
sometimes seen on stagnant 
water, due to the growth of 
a microscopic plant, the 
Spirogyra. 

Bacteria require for 
their growth warmth, 
moisture, and food. j\Iany 
kinds of bacteria prefer 
protein food. Food for 
bacteria is not necessarily 
of a highly complicated 
nature. ]\Iany species will 
find the right conditions 
for nourishment and 
growth if a small amount 
of protein and some water 
are present. Since few 
bacteria thrive in acids or 
in the presence of much sugar, their destruction is less difficult 
in fruits and tomatoes than in vegetables such as corn, peas, and 
beans, or in meats, which are the most difficult of all foods to 
can safely in the home. 

Bacteria in the growing state can be killed by subjecting them 
to moist heat at boiling temperature for variable lengths of time. 
j\Ioist heat is far more effective than dry heat. Many kinds of 
bacteria have the power under adverse conditions of producing 
spores which are much more resistant than the vegetative or ac- 




FiG. 10. — Various stages in the development 
of brewer's yeast, seen, with the exception of the 
first in the series, with an ordinary high power 
(Zeiss, D. 4) of the microscope. The first is greatly 
magnified (Gundlach's 1-16 immersion lens). The 
second series of four represents stages in the divi- 
sion of asingle cell; and the third series a branching 
colony. Everywhere the light-areas indicate 
vacuole^. 



22 Sll( KSSKIL ( ANMNC AND I'll KSKliX I NC 

tivcly roproduoinu form in wliicli tlie haf't4'ria onlinarily are 
found. Hactt'fia proclucc spores foi* llic j»iii-posr of nifctiiifr iit- 
favorahlc coiKlitioiis. and in this icstin*;: staj^e tlic living' niatlt-r 
may lie dormant for a lonj; tinif, as it. were, await inj,' favorahlc 
conditions undiT wliich tlu' vt'jj^rtative rapid I'cproduction form 
oan lie ri'sumcd. These spores may Ix' coinpaiTd to tiir seeds of 
liigiier f)lants in their ability to withstand unfavoi-al)le condi- 
tions. While most of the baeteria which do not produce spores 
can be killed at a triii|>('fa1ui-e of 141) to 180' Fahrenheit, it 
is a well-known fact that some spoi-es are able to resist heat at 
boiling temperature for sixteen hours or more. Many bacteria 
show n-i-eat adaptability to temperature conditions. Drying for 
a long period will kill many organisms, but spoi-es may witlistiind 
drying for years. By ai)j)lying boiling temperature for a certain 
length of time on each of three successive dayuS the ordinary 
bacteria as well as most of the spores will 1k' des»troyed, and eondi- 
tioiLs brought about by the processing will arrest the growth of 
any sj^ores which may remain undeveloped. Certain resistant 
spores will germinate within twelve to eighteen houi-s aftei-" the 
first treatment ; but heating on the second day will kill these; and 
the third treatment is a safeguard which will destrccy the remain- 
ing "germs" in most cases. This intermittent or repeated 
processing with a coiLStant temperature of 212 Fahrcuilieit is 
perhaps a s:afer method and will assure success, more often tlum a 
single period of boiling for a longer length of time. 

Almo.st all the bactei'ia which are so I'esistant to heat when in 
the spore state are abundant in cultivated soil and Ihei-efore i)res- 
ent in pods, husks, and different parts of such vegetables as 
corn, peas, and beans, which contain food upon which the spore- 
bearing forms thrive. The jircsence of these bacteria upon the 
parts of vegetables to be canned is therefore almost inevitable. 
The difficulty of preservation is increasingly great when such 
vegetables have been bruised, allowed to stand, or have in them 
decayed portions. "When fruit skin is broken, molds fall to work 
;uid open the way foi- baeteria to enter and start the decay. If 
the juices of these j)lants Ixvome infected wilh spores of these 
various s])eeies, the ju'oblem of processing is more (]it'ficult. 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNIXG 23 

All bacteria in the spore state can also be destroyed by sub- 
jecting them to a temperature of 240 to 250^ Fahrenheit, moist 
heat, but special apparatus, as the steam-pressure canner, is neces- 
sary to produce such temperatures. For this reason the method 
known as intermittent processing- finds wide use among house- 
keepers and Canning- Club membere who do not possess steam- 
pressure canners. This method of fractional heating consists 
of applying boiling temperature to vegetables, already packed in 
glass or tin, for a certain jieriod on each of three successive days, 
tightening the cover immediately after each boiling or "process- 
ing" if the lid has been loosened to take care of the expansion 
caused by the heat. Between each daily processing the containers 
are kept at ordinary temperatures; the spores not killed by boil- 
ing may develop into the easily killed vegetative fonn and then be 
destroyed by the next period of boiling. If spores are present 
in the jars or cans, rarely do they fail to develop and be destroyed 
by the third processing (Fig. 11). For peas and corn, properly 
selected and handled carefully, processing for one hour in a water- 
bath at boiling on the first day, and repeated on the second and 
third days, will ordinarily sterilize these foods in quart jars or 
Xo. 2 cans. Even though some undeveloped spores may remain 
after processing, conditions in the closed container are rendered 
unfavorable for their growth. The flavor of such vegetables thus 
processed is considered by many to be finer than when the vege- 
tables are subjected to very high temperatures, as in the steam- 
pressure cookers. Treatment for one hour on three successive 
days is perhaps the safest method to follow with hot-water can- 
ners, when canning such vegetables as peas, corn, beans, etc. It is 
dangerous to use minimum periods of processing, because during 
some seasons there are occasional "outbreaks" where fields are 
infected with an vuiusual type or a larger number of bacteria than 
ordinarily exist. Some fertilizers cause the fibers of plants to 
toughen, and it is more difificult for heat to penetrate them, there- 
fore a longer processing i)eriod is required. Every precaution 
should be taken to counteract the influence of such danger by 
cleanliness, careful handling, and rapid working from one stage 
to another duriuff the entire process of canning 



srcCKSSIl I, CWMNC AM) I'l; I isKltX'l NC 



Eriijymes. — In additiun id llic adinn ul" " ' ;rcniis " or iiiiiiiifi' 
oririiiiisiiis, the s|ioiliii'_: nl" rniils ami \ c^^ctahli's is haslciiiil l»y 
natural cliaiit^cs, wiiidi rrsiilt liom tlif action of cn/ynirs or iinor- 
irani/.cd fcniH'iitiiiL;- aiicnts IniiiKl in nature (the pt'j)sin of tlic 
st(»nui('li is an illustration i uliidi. wliili' not ct'llular ortranisni like 
l)ai'tfria, do hrcak down and dccoMiposc foodstuffs. 'I'hcsc ('han<^(*s 
take plai'c wil li xarviu'j rapidity in ditVcrcnt foods and injure the 
(|uality of llic I'ood. The d«lii-atc thnurs of many fruits arr thus 




Fig. 11. — Bacillus hutyricus (rods and spores found in corn). 

destroyed Avhen they are allowed to stand too lonu', and become 
stale before being: canned. This is an important reason why all 
fruits and vegetables should be canned as quickly as possible after 
being gathered. The canner need not pay great attention to 
enzymes, because they ai'e l<illed as soon as heated. 

Classes of Bacteria. — A classification of baeteiia in i-eference 
to their need of oxygen is especially helpfid to tin- cainitr; from 
this point of view, bacteria are of three classes: 

]. Aei'obic — I'eipiire free oxygen. 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNING 



25 



2. Anaerobic — can live without free oxygen (Fig. 12). 

3. Facultative (Aerobic, anaerobic) — can live with or without 
free oxygen. 

Aerobic bacteria obtain the oxygen necessary for the process 
of multiplication from the air, and if the air is cut off they either 
remain dormant or die. Anaerobic bacteria obtain their supply of 
oxygen^ from organic compounds such as carbohydrates and pro- 
teins. This class sometimes causes more violent fermentation 



r' 




Fig. 12. — Anaerobic pea bacillus. 

when forced to grow in the absence of free oxygen than when 
growing naturally ; being deprived of free oxygen, the tearing 
down of organic compounds is accomplished with great rapidity 
to supply the required oxygen, while the multiplication is les- 
sened. This fact accounts for the rapid spoilage of goods which 
have been improperly processed. The anaerobic bacteria bring 
about decomposition with the evolution of ai large amount of gas 
(Fig. 18). This gas may accumulate in (|uantities sufficient to 
bulge and even to break the container in which it is sealed (Fig. 



o(; srccKssii I. ( wmm; wd n:i:si:i;\iN(; 

\i . Wlion proHnrl^ in tin bul!_'f> frnni \hc pi-r>5r>nrr> of pas inside 
llicy iii'f known as '■5;\vr|ls." S^nnic hartoria liavc hem (Icserilx'd 
which l)rin'^- aliout dcconiposil ion in vc^clalth-s and meat \vith(»nt 
('\()liiti(tn of isns. Thry lhvc <'\id<'ncf of tlicir pi-csciicf hy tin* 
dcvchipnii'nl ol" peculiar (i(h)fs and llavdcs. These are known as 
' ' Ihd sours. " 

A lai'Lie pci'ci'nlaj,''e ol' losses in canned ^oods is dne to the 
racnltati\'c anaei-obes. The anai'-iohic hucteria, however, <'anse 
spoilage in many cases wlicre ollicfs are (h'slroyed hecause the an- 




''^L^ i/ 



Fia. 13. — Bacillus megatherium (the vegetating forms as found in a can of pi-Ms). 

a('rol)ie l)olon.fr to the soil and are spore-bearinu' and liave tlio 
power to Avitlistand very high temperatures and afterwards de- 
velop. Most all of the anaerobes are laiown as bacilli: that is, 
they are rod-shaped. 

Facidtative aerobic or facultative anaerobic bacteria lielong 
to a class which accommodate themselves to whatever condition in 
wliich Ihey may be placed: 

Facultative aerobes are anai'robic by nature", but will Lrrow 
in an aerobic state : that is. in air. 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNlNTr 



27 



Facultative anaerobes are aerobic by nature, but will grow in 
an anaerobic state ; that is, where air is excluded. 

Nearly all bacteria found in improperly processed sealed con- 
tainers are spore-bearing org'anisins, either anaerobic or faculta- 
tive anaerobic. If there should happen to be a leak in the can 
any variety may enter and set up decomposition. Non-spoim- 
lating' varieties are always destroyed at boiling- temperature (212° 
Fahrenheit) : so unless tliere is a leak or the processing is incom- 
plete, this variety will not be present. 

A partial vacuum is an ideal environment for the growth of 
anaerobic bacilli, since free oxygen interferes with the nndtipli- 
eation of these germs. On the other hand, they require oxygen 




Fig. 14.— (a) Can burst from pressure of gas generated; (6) a normal can; (c) a swell. 



for growth, but thej- must ol^tain it by breaking down substances 
that contain oxygen in chemical combinations. 

Experiments in canning seem to indicate that the organisms 
known as hotulimis may not be destroyed when foods are pro- 
cessed at a temperature as low as 212° Fahrenheit. When foods 
are canned at home unless the pressure cooker has been used, it 
is urged that when the contents are removed from the can they 
be boiled for several minutes before being eaten. If, for example, 
beans are to be used for a salad, they should be boiled first and 
then coole(^. Such a procedure makes for safety. 

Partially cooked material offers a more suitable medium for 
these germs, because the cellulose or fiber is softened and there is 



28 



srcrKssn I. cannin! and ruKSKiiNixc 



ii.sii;ill,\ iiKiic .siiit'ai'c ('\|iiis('(l, ,111(1 tile juices aft' I'iflirr in cai-lH)- 
liydi'atc (»!• allmiiiiiiiiiis iiiattci*, as tlic case may !)«•. The dani^'cr 
from llifsi' bacteria is not sd j^rcat where absolute eleariliness is 
cxereist'd aii<l waste niatei-ial is pi-opej-ly disposed of. .Many bac- 
teria which arc capable ol" setting'- up j)u(refactive processes will 
thrive luxuriantly on a jrreat variety of cooked foods, when, as a 
rule, tlioy will not prrow n^adily on wliole raw materials. 

Perfect Seal Important. — Putrefaction is sometimes foun<l in 

imjx'rfectly sealed and processed 
canned meats and veiretables. 
This may be due to insutTicient 
cooking or to leaky cans.. In 
the process of putrefaction tliere 
are various ptonuiines and toxic 
poisons formed which sometimes 
cause considerable trouble. 

Testing the Seal. — {a) In 
glass. After fruits and vegeta- 
bles are canned and set aside until 
entirely cold, the jars may be 
tested by removing tlie clamp and 
attempting to lift the lid from the 
jar. If the lid comes off, the jar 
was either not properly sealed or 
the contents are fermenting and 
may have to be discarded. If the lid remains tight, the chances are 
that the contents are keeping (Fig. 15). When faulty sealing 
alone exists jars may be reprocessed and the contents saved. 
However, protein foods are sometimes attacked by bacteria 
which thrive without the presence of air, and which decom- 
pose canned foods without producing any gas. "When these 
have not been killed by processing, the food may appear good 
and the jar remain sealed when it is spoiled. These spoils 
in tin caused by bacteria which decompose food without fonn- 
ing gas are known as "flat sours"; Avith them the can is not 
bulged and shows no indication of spoiling. When such ]>roducts 
arc opened they are slimy and soft and they are acid to the taste. 




Fio. 15.^ — Testing the jar seal. 



BACTEKrOLOfJY OF CANNING 39 

(h) Tn tin. The time to detect the leak is when the can is first 
put into the processinp,- vessel ; a shower of bubbles will be seen 
coming: from the defective seal. If the can is removed immedi- 
ately and retipped or capped, the contents may be saved in g:oo<l 
condition. Occasionally the attempt is made to save defective 
cans, when they are detected after the processing, by reopening 
the tip hole, repairing the can, exhausting and reprocessing for 
the regular time. Products handled by this careless method are 
very likely to cause most serious stomach and intestinal compli- 
cations. This practice is a very dangerous one. 

After cans are cooled, before stacking them, they are some- 
times tested by tapping the end of the can with a piece of metal. 
A clear, ringing" sound indicates that the can is air-tight. If a 
dull sound is heard when the metal strikes the lid, the can should 
not be stored with the lot. A trained or experienced ear can very 
quickh^ detect from the sound when all is not well within. 

Substances Injurious to Bacterial Growth. — Many bacteria 
in growing give rise to substances such as acids which are more 
or less injurious to the cell life. The accumulation of acids and 
other substances produced by bacteria interferes with the bacterial 
growth and their power of multiplication. We have examples of 
this in the "flat, sours" and also in the brining of vegetables. 
The acid present when frothing ceases above the brined cucum- 
bers (lactic acid) is strong enough to kill most of the bacteria 
in the brine. It is this lactic acid which cures and keeps the vege- 
table if the air is excluded from it at this stage, and the forming 
of scum yeast at the surface of the brine is prevented. Many 
manufacturers do not know that their brine contains acid, yet the 
instant it does not contain it the pickle begins to deteriorate. A 
full explanation of this process is given in the chapter on "Pick- 
ling," page 190. One of the principal factors in the manufacture 
and preservation of sauer-kraut is the development of lactic acid 
in quantities sulificient to act as a preservative. Bacteria, yeast, 
and molds are of value in preparation of foods such as vinegar, 
pickles, sauer-kraut, cheese, bread, and butter. 

Methods of Preserving Foods. — Just at this point it may be 
helpful and interesting to consider methods of preserving food. 



30 SL'CCKSSll I. CANNINC AM) I'KKSKliX IN(; 

with a hricf explanation of'liow each met hod a('fom[)lishcs its piir- 
j)ose. 'I'o iiii(h'i-staii(l t hese t'liiidainental reasons enables one U) do 
eaniiiii^' ami pnservinvr moi'c skilfnlly. The four methods com- 
monly used ai'c preservation of food hy dl•yiIl^^ hy preservatives, 
Ity Jii'at, and by eold. 

1 . Preservation of Food hif Drifiiuj. — Tliis met hod perhaps was 
one of the first known. In ])rimitive times food was exposed to 
the direct rays of the sun for the purpose of dryin<r it. This 
method is practiced at the present time, but more fre<pieiiily the 
]ii'oduct is subjected to a hig^her temperature. Tn tlie process of 
dryiuj,' a consideral)le poi'tion of water is eliminated and many of 
the organisms present are destroyed. Bacteria, yeast, and molds 
cannot develop when the moisture in any food is very much 
retluced below the original amount. The same is true Avhen cer- 
tain disinfectants, such as smoke or the fumes of sulfur dioxide, 
are used in the cure. IMeats and fisli are frequently dried after 
a preliminary smoking or salting. Many food materials contain- 
ing an abundance of starch are sufficiently dried in the natural 
process of ripening and drying: for example, certain nuts, such 
as chestnuts and the grains. ]\leats, meal, or flour containing the 
same amount of moisture as raisins oi- prunes would quickly spoil. 
Fruits are usually readily preserved l)y drying on account of 
their high sugar content. A dried or partially di'ied food should 
be sealed from the air to prevent gross contamination and to pre- 
vent moisture being absorbed due to its hygi'oscopic imture. 

2. By Harmless Preservatives. — The most commonly used of 
these preservatives are salt, sugar, vinegar, and certain spices. 
In the pi'esenee of these, bacteria and yeast eaiuiot grow success- 
fully. Products such as jellies, preserves, and i)ickles are easily 
kept because of the presence of one or more of these ju'cservatives. 
AVliile the sugar or spices used may prevent fermentation, molds 
are likely to occur on these foods unless heated and sealed to 
protect them from the air. This can be done with all of the prod- 
ucts, except jellies, by always i)rocessing and sealing after {)acking 
them into the containers. Jelly can be protected from mold 
liy pouring over it a thin layer of melted paraftiii when eold and 
covering it tightly. 



BACTElUUJJJCiY UF CANNING 3^ 

Sodium chloride (salt) is used for dry-salting vegetables, fish 
and sometimes other meats. The salt rapidly removes a part of 
the water and thus forms a medium which is not suitable for the 
growth of bacteria. This is a physical action, because it is 
brought about by greatly increasing the osmotic pressure. Some 
preservatives act chemically by direct antiseptic action upon the 
microorganisms. Preservatives that inhibit the growth of organ- 
isms by their chemical action as antiseptics belong in two classes: 
(a) those which are produced in the food as a result of fermenta- 
tion of the food material being packed ; (h) those which are added 
directly to the food. 

(a) Self-fennentatiu)i as Preservation. — Among the products 
in which preservation is achieved through the results of fermen- 
tation, in the process of curing, are pickles, olives, onions, sauer- 
kraut, cauliflower, and some pickled meats and various other raw 
materials. Lactic acid fonned by the action of lactic acid bacteria 
upon sugar may develop in sufficient quantities in certain foods to 
preserve them indefinitely against further change if properly 
handled. The preservation of ensilage is largely due to the lactic 
acid and other acids which are formed during the process of 
curing. 

(b) Preserving powders ^ and other chemicals added to foods 
for their preservation are considered detrimental to health. Not 

^ Concerning the use of canning powders the United States Department 
of Agriculture has made the following statement: " The attention of the 
Dc-partment of Agriculture has recently been called to the widespread use, 
especially in rural communities, of salicylic acid in preserved footls. The 
Department is aware that this practice is not confined to salicylic acid 
under its o^\^l name alone, but that large quantities of this acid, and of 
boric acid as well, are sold under fanciful names as preserving powders or 
canning compounds at prices which are much in excess of their real value. 
In the directions for use, the housewife is told to fill the jar with fruit or 
vegetables, cover with water and add a, teaspoonful of the powder. It is 
true that these powders may prevent the decay of tlie fruit or vegetable but 
they also encourage uncleanly and careless work, and tlieir excessive use 
may be attended with very serious effects on the health. Salicylic acid is 
a medicine of the greatest value in acute articular rheumatism and certain 
other diseases. It is well known as a poisonous 'substance, and one of the 
evils which may accompany its use is derangement of digestion and liealth. 
It is entirely practicable to put up l)oth fruits and vegetables in such a 
manner that they will keep indefinitely l)y sterilizing the products by means 
of heat, and tliere is no excuse for running any risk by use of preserving 
powders." 



'{') srcCKSSII L < WMNC AND PItKSKItX I N( ; 

tuily arc foods coiitainiii^'' tlitm in (|iiaiitily less w IkiIi'soiiu', l)iit 
lIuMi" use (MicdiiraLTi's carelessness and the putt Iiilt ii|M)f IVxtd wliieh 
is uiisouiiil and iiiilil tu eat. I'.eri/oie acid and salicylic acid and 
their salts, and r(iiinaideh\(le. hofic aeid. and horatcs arc some- 
times nse<l. These componiids wci-e purposely added hy some of 
tiie eai'l\- eanners to shorten tlirir eooUiuir or |)i'occssin?_' period. 
Fortunatel\' this method has ]ai"<rcly lieen supei'seded hy the more 
relia))le and less exj)ensive process hy use of heat oidy. 

Some produets, such as ketchups, sauces, and "fruit sundaes," 
preserved with such chemicals as salie.vlie acid, henzoatc of 
sodium, and borax, are still on the market. In many cases this 
metlind is used because tlie buyer prefers this class of jroods, even 
when he knows that pi-eservatives have been used to keep theiu 
in an unfei'inented state. Hotel and soda fountain trade some- 
times ])refers jroods treated in this -way because they will not spoil 
so soon after lieinfr opened. Sometimes tomato ketchup and fruits 
for sundaes will not keep for more than a week after the bottles 
or jars are opened. Fre(iuently fermentation sets in about the 
fourth or fifth day, and mold will sometimes ])e visible to the eye 
in five or six days, if they have been processed by heat only. So 
long as the buyers' trade will accei)t food which is boui^ht in larire 
containers and has been allowed to stand around open for days at 
fountains and in hotels we may expect these preservatives to be 
used. This method is cheaper and requires less care and skill than 
the putting up of individual packages for each patron's sei*vice. 
It is undoubtedly true that in a majority of cases it is advisable 
to preserve food materials whenever possible without the addition 
of antiseptics. They are unnecessary^ and. though the actual 
effect on the body of some is unknown, the burden of proof rests 
upon those who employ them. 

:]. Ih) Mains, of llcai. — Two methods of heat ai)plication may 
be used — pasteurization or stei-ilization. In ])asteurizati(m the 
£ood is rais^Hl to such a temperature that the organisms of 
certain ty])es, but not necessarily all organisnis, are destroyed. 
This process is ordinarily applied to milk and cream and to cer- 
tain alcoholic beverages, such a« beer and wine. In some cases 



BACTElUULUe; i Ui' CAN.NI.XU ;^3 

this results in a prolonfjation of the time during;- which the food 
ma}' be used. 

Sterilization by means of heat implies the use of a sufficient 
deofree of heat to destroy all livinu- organisms present; and when 
the entrance of other organisins into the preserved food is 
prevented it may be kept indefinitely. In the preservation of 
foods by heat it is necessary that a temperature be selected that 
will destroy all veiietative organisms capable of producing unde- 
sirable changes and yet cause no undesirable changes to take 
plac€ in the food itself. The antiseptic action of the acid found in 
some fruits and vegetables is so increased by the temperature 
of boiling water that it quite certainly sterilizes the product. 
Foods containing a large proportion of sugars are also easily 
sterilized by boiling. Vegetables such as com and peas are much 
more difficult to preserve, inasmuch as they contain neither acid 
nor sugar in considerable quantities and are ordinarily infected 
with certain of the anaerobic spore-bearing bacteria which are 
capable of withstanding high temperatures. 

The heat used in the preservation of food by processing pro- 
duces few changes other than those which would be accom]ilished 
by ordinary cooking and preparation for serving. Heat will not 
injure the flavor very much unless it is prolonged. 

Experiments at the University of California show vegetables 
can be saved as easily as fruit if a little acid in the form of lemon 
juice or vinegar is added to the liquid in which they are canned. 
It was found that beans, peas, asparagus, beets and other vege- 
tables heated to 212° Fahrenheit in a two per cent brine (see 
table for brines, page 192), acidified by the addition of 5 ounces 
of lemon juice to each gallon kept perfectly, while the same vege- 
tables heated in the l)rine without lemon juice spoiled. 

The common practice of canning corn with tomatoes owes its 
efficacy to the same principle. Owing to its lack of acidity, corn 
is one of the most difficult vegetables to preserve. When com- 
bined with tomatoes this lacking acid is furnished and the mixture 
is easily processed and kept. The amount of acid used is small 
and rather improves the flavor, especially if the products are to 
be used in salads. The use of a lower temperature for a shorter 
3 



:n 



SICCKSSI I I. CANNING AM) I'l: l>l.l:\ I N< J 



|)('i-i(i(l ;ils(i |irfscr\cs ;i lirltfr trxliiif thiiii is |t(».s.sili|<' t(» nhtaiii 
when lii'jii IciiiiiiT.iliM-cs arc used ill till' criokiiiLr or jirocc'ssiiij.''. 

Since prcst rviiliiiii 1).\ incaiis (if licat is tlic licst way to retain 
tlic iiahifal llavors and w linlcsninc (jnalitics of fruits and vc<r<'- 

tal)lcs. tliis 1 I< will deal cliictl>- with this niclliod of kccpinir 

thi'sc foods. 

4. Pr( s( rvdi'utii <if Foo'l in ('<)l<l Shmn/' . I'ract ically all 
ffMKls can he l<c|)l for a 1 iiiic hy 1 he use of low teiii|icratures. Cold 
does not kill, hut arrests the ui'iiwth of oruaniiiis. Sotiie focxls can 
lie kej)! iiidclinitcl\- h,\- fi-ec/.int:-. .Mcat.s may hi' held for sonic 
time at tliis tempcratui-e without deterioration: in fai-t. for a time 
with marked improvement in teuderiiess and flavor. Some bac- 
teria may develop at temperatures below free/inu-iioint of water, 
but not if they are in a medium which is solidly frozen. The 
len«rth of time that food products may be kept in cold storage 
without (huifrer to the health of the consumer is a disputed (|ues- 
tion. but it undoubtedly varies widely according' to the nature of 
the food. 

QUESTIOXS 

1. To wliat is tlu' (locomposilioii of foods dnc'.' Mention sonio clianjro.s 

wliicii tako ])lace durin<r tlie dccom))osition of foods. 

2. ]Io\v may mold hv prevenUnl from <rro\viii;r on tlic toj) of Jelix r Ivxplain 

your aiiswer. 

3. What are l)act('ria ? State one way in wliicli tliev dill'er delinitidy from 

molds and yca.st. 

4. Why is it more diOlcult to can l)oans and mcnt than it is to can fruits 

and tomatoes '! 

5. Wliat is meant hy spore-l)carinf)r hactoria'.' How do spores diller from 

liaeteria in their tenacity of lifc? 
0. Why is intermittent processinfi at 21-2° Fahrenheit a surer method of 
]')reservation than a sin<jle ])roeessinjr for a lon-rer time in a water- 
hath? 

7. J)eseril)e "swell-."" Wlial is the cavisi' of them? Deserihe "Mat sours." 

What is their cause? 

8. Why is a leaky can or imperfectly i)roeessed i)rodiut extremely dan- 

perous? What snhstances are formed in the process of putrefaction? 
!). I'lider what conditions ar<' bacteria, yeast, and iiiohl> of use in the 
]ire|)aratiou of food? 

10. Name the substances which may he classed as harmless preservatives. 

l^.xplain the prcservinjr power of two of these jin'servat ives. 

11. Why should preservinjj jiowders he comlennu'd evi-n when their in- 

jurious efVects cannot he proveil? 

12. What is meant liy jiastetirization ? l!y sierili/ation ? 

l:j. Wiiy are foods much more easily preserved hy hoilin^r when there is 
jiresent a certain amount of sUL^ar and acid? 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNING 35 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. BiTTiXG, A. W., "Tlie Canning of Foods," Bulletin No. 15], 1!)1J. 

" Methods Followed in the Commercial Canning of Foods,'" Bulletin 
No. li)(), M'av, lOl"). Superintendent of Documents, Government 
Printinii' Ollice, Waj^hington I). C. 10 cents. 

2. BurETT, i:'vA .M., " Utility of Blandiing in Food Canning (FlTect of Cold 

Shock upon Bacterial Death Rate)." Journal of Industrial ami Engi- 
neering Ciiemistry, A'ol. 2. No. 1, -lanuary, 1!)!!). 

3. BucHANA.x, EsTELi.E D.. aiul Eakle, Kohkut, •• Household Bacteriology," 

1913. The IMacmillan Company, New York City, N. Y. $2.25. 

4. BuRiv. CtEOiuJiNA S.. " The Elfect of Heat on the Spores of Bacillus 

Botulinus (Its Bearing on Home Canning Methods)." Journal of 
American Metlical Association, Vol. 72, No. 2, January 11, 191!). 

5. BrsnxELL. L. D.. " Influence of Cokl Shock in the Sterilizing of Canned 

Foods," Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 10 (1918). 
G. Conn, H. \Y., " Bacteria. Yeasts, and IMolds in the Home,'' 1912. Ginn 
& Co., New York City, N. Y. $1. 

7. CiU'ESs, W. v.. Circular I08, Agricultural Experiment Station. Univer- 

sity of California, College of Agriculture, Berkeley, California. 

8. Dickson, Ernest C. " Botulism an Experimental Study," also "Danger 

of Poisoning from Vegetables Canned by the Cold Pack Method," 
Journal of the American Medical Association, September 22, 1917. 

9. DUCKWAI.L, Edward Wiley, " Canning and Preservingof Food Products 

with Bacteriological Technique," 1905. The Pittsburgh Printing 
Company, Pittslniroh, Pa. $.5. 

10. EixioTT, S. ^Iaria. "Houseliold Bacteriology," 1910. American School 

of Home Economies, Chicago, 111. .$1.50. 

11. Genung, Elizabeth F., "A Consideration of the Canning Problem," 

Journal of American Home Econojnics, July, 1918. 

12. Hiss and Zinsser. " Bacteriology." D. Appieton & Co., New York City. 

1:3. HuENiNK, H. L., and Bartow, Edward, '• The Effect of the Mineral Con- 
tent of Water on Canned Foods," Joiirnal of Industrial and Engineer- 
ing Chemistry, Vol. 7, No. (>, June, 1915, p. 495. 

14. Jordan. Edwin' O., " Bacteriology^" 1912. W. B. Saunders Company 

Philadelphia, Pa. $3. 

15. LoHNis, F., and Smith, N. R., United States Department of Agricul- 

ture, Journal of Agricultural Research, " Life Cycles of the Bac- 
teria," Vol. (i. No. 18, 191(). Superintendent of iJocumencs, Govern- 
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 25 cents. 
10. McElroy, K. P., and Bioelow, W. D., United States Department of 
Agriculture, Biueau of Chemistry, " Canned Vegetables," Bulletin 
No. 13, part S, 1893. 

17. Rose, Flora, " T]\e Canning Situation," Bulletin No. 109, Report of 

Farmers' Institutes, AHmny, New \"ork, July, 1918. 

18. Van Rensselaer, IMartilv, Cornell Reading Courses, "Household Bac- 

teriology'," Jainiary, 1913 New York State College of Agriculture, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

19. Van Rens.selaer, Rose Canon, "Manual of Home Making," Macmil- 

lan Company, New Y'ork City. 

20. Wiley, Dr. Harvey W., " Foods and Their Adulteration," 1911. P. 

Blakiston's Son Company, Philadclidiia. Pa. $4. 

21. " Bacteriology of the Houseliold," in Li])pincott's Home ^Manual Series 

(in propai-ation ) . J. B. Lippincott ('(mijiany, Philadelphia. 

22. California State Board of Health Bulletin. " To Prevent Food Poison- 

ing," .Juiu". 1917, Sacramento, California. 



ciiAi'Ti:!: Ill 

PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 

Tin: same Lrt'iit-ral (•(Hidilions hold tor caiiiiiii^' iiidoor-s or out 
of doors. ( 'oiivciiiciil f(|ui|»iiiciit. carcfullN' sfl('('t(<l and ar- 
I'aiiLTfd. siirfoiiiidiiiirs dean and I'm- I'roni dnst, and a |)l('ntirnl 
snpiily (d" water are anioiiLf llw rsscniials. 

JNDODU CA.\M.\(; 

hiirin^- cciiain seasons of tlie year weather e()ii(lilions make 
it nioic comfortabh' to work indooi's. Small i|natititios of finiit 
or vegetables can he more eonvenieiilly handled in the kitelieii 
than out of doors. 

Arrangement of Equipment. — When eanninu'' in the kitchen, 
a part of the work, such as sortinj,^ \vashin<r, cutting', and peel- 
ing:, may be done on the porch. Jars may he sterilized and brine 
and syrup made in the kitchen while the fruit is Ijcing prepared 
on the porch (Fig. 16). After cooking, which with vegetables 
may include blanching and with fruits may involve plumping, 
the cooling and pacldng may be done on the porch, provided it 
is screened against bees, wasps, files, and other insects which are 
attracted by the odors of the products being canned. The at- 
tractive odors of the fragrant fruits and spices are alluring to 
these insects. 

Utensils Used in Preparation. — Only the e(|uipment neces- 
sary for convenient, accurate, and et'licieiit work should be se- 
lected. Fii-st, it is well to consider the utensils neces.sary for the 
washing, peeling, coring, and slicing in the preparation of the 
fruit and vegetables. For washing, it is best to use small bruslies 
having .strong bristles, bowls for the water, and pans for drain- 
ing. Some good types of knives for paring and peeling, selected 
with reference to comfortable handling and well-shaped cutting 
edge, are shown in the illustration. Since coring and slicing of 
fruit are constantly being carried on in cooking operations the 
year around, it is woi-th while to provide these inexpensive uteu- 
36 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



37 



sils, which will also add to the efficiency of these operations in 
canning. Good types are shown in figure 16. 




FiQ. 16. — A group of useful utensils for washing, peeling, coring, grating, and slicing fruit 

and vegetables. 




Fia. 17. — Special equipment necessary to obtain most successful and .u,,.;..,t i..,„.;a. 

Successful results largely depend upon the accuracy with 
which directions are followed. With this idea in view, a small 
special equipment is suggested. For measuring lic^uids, the one- 



:{s 



SlCCKSSl'lL (. ANMNc; AM) I'lLK.^KlLN INCJ 



lialf i)irit f^'liiss Clip ;iim1 ciijiimi'I oi- jilmiiinum (|iiart incasui-c will 
lie suHicifiil. Till iili'iisils aiT olt.ji'ct ioiialtic ln'caiisr I'niils arc 
(lisc(»|()i-('i| liy tliiiii. Ill srciiriii'^' Irvd iiirasiirt'S (if dry iiiatfi-iai 
the use of a sjiatula is siiLT'-rcstcd. It lias many otlu-r valuahlf 
uses. A flat caiic paddle used in packini: niay Im suhslil iilcd for 
llii- spatula. Scales arc iii\ aliiaMc when iiiidcrtakiii!.'' canning; in 
lai'vrc (piantitics. Tlic clock must he constantly consulted tti in- 
sure correct time for the vai-ious stcjjs in the processes of canniii!,'' 
and pri'ser\iiiLr. Tlii' saccli.iroiiicti'r is siitJ^csted for tlii' purpose 
(if mcasiiriiii;- the densit\' of syrups used ill caiininjr fruits: tlier- 




Tic. IS. — Uicnsils Ksed in bhinchiiip and in ooi.iinp. 



mometei-s aid in the jelly-niakiim' ])rocess, as well as in makiiii: 
jams and marmalades. A fuller description of their use is given 
in the chapter on " Preserving." A salt percentage scale is used 
to determine the density of brine for nse in pickling (Fig. 17). 

Utensils Used in Cooking and Processing. — The equipment 
thus far described is useful in j)rei)ai'atioii of fi-uits and vege- 
tables for cainiing. Next to be considered are utensils for cook- 
ing and i)rocessing. In the blanching nece.s.sary for sonic fruits 
and Vegetables a large vessel for boiling water is necessary. This 
must be laru'c enouizh to immerse wire baskets containing' the 
fruit to be blanched. The same pan or tt'a\' used latci' in the pre- 
serving .serves hci-c for transferring the drijiping baskets or 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



39 



blancliiiig: cloth to the eohl hath which folh)Ws the bhiiich in many 
cases. The large preserving kettle illustrated is useful in many 
ways. It might be used for the blanching vessel, the preserving 
kettle, and even as the processor. It is economy to have it of the 
most durable material possible. Two ladles — one cup-like with 
pouring lip for liquids, and the other tiat and perforated for 
skimming — will be helpful during the cooking as well as when 
filling the containers (Fig. 18). 




Fig. 19. — The processor and rack with jars ready to be sterilized. Note all clamps are 
raised and screw-lop only partly screwed on. 

In processing, which is described later, it is necessary to have 
a tightly covered vessel large enough to sterilize a convenient 
number of jars at one time. A rack which will raise the con- 
tainers from the bottom of the sterilizer must be used to allow 
boiling water to circulate beneath as well as around the con- 
tainers being sterilized. This rack is most convenient when it is 
supplied with handles so that all the jars on it may be lifted at 
one time (Fig. 19). Wire hot-jar lifters will prevent burning 
fingers (Fig. 20). 

Cooperative canning also is a method of minimizing labor 
(Figs. 21 and 22). 



40 SUCCESSKII. CANNINC AND I'l:i;si;il\ IN(; 

(>l ritoon <'ANNIN(i 

Tlit'i'i- ail' many ailvanta^^rs ami plt-asiii't-s in cadiiiii^' out of 
doors, ('sj)O('ially \\l:i'ii lai<.'i' iinantilics of farm jtroducts are to 
lie tak«'ii care of in the shortest possible time. Outdoor eanniii}; 
«;ives opportunity for cooperative work amoiif? clubs and iieii,'!!- 
Itors. In eoiiperative cannings tlie miniiinim amount of lalxir, if 
well or^'ani/ed, will ^ivc lar^rer and better residts. This work 
has stimulated many women and <^irls to spend more time in the 
open and bring other tasks out of doors. Choose a shady, green, 
cool spot convenient to the water sniii)ly for the canning. The 
fact has been mentioned before that insects are attractid by 
odor.s from the frnit being canned, and it might be well to 
consider baiting tly-traps 7iear wliere the canning is done (Fig. 




Fig. 20. — Tongs for handling hot cans. 

23). Flies prefer nitrogenous food to sweets, and if tlie 
traps are properly baited with milk clabber or meat they will 
be less attracted to the products being canned (Figs. 23 and 24). 
In addition to the equipment already described above under "In- 
door Canning," there are important matters of special concern 
in outdoor canning. 

Arrangement of Tables. — 'i'ables of the proper height should 
be conveniently arranged for different steps of the work. The 
diagram shown offers a suggestion for placing of tables with 
reference to the canner, especially when canning in tin (Fig. 25). 

Table 1 is equipped for the sorting, washing, blanching, peel- 
ing, and coring. It should be as few steps as possible from the 
canner, to save time and labor in the blanching process. 

Table 2 should be placed near Table 1, because the fruit is 
passed to this table for paekine. wei<:hinir. and addinir of brine 
or syrup. 

Tal»le 3, which is for capping and tipping and should stand 
level, should be n^ar the canner, because of the numerous trips 



rREPARATIOX AND EQUIPMENT 



41 




SUCCKSSFUl. CANNIN': AM> PHI^KUVINO 




PREPARATION AXJ) EQl'Il'-^HONT 



43 



to be made between tlieiu. Table A migbt l)e omitted if one is 
canninii' in ula.ss only. Illustrations show other eonvenient ar- 
rangements of tables for out-of-door eanniny (Figs. 2() and 27). 
When tin cans are used it necessitates the use of tipping cop- 
per and capping steel. Sometimes the same fire which heats the 
water in the cauner is used to heat these tools. A little oil stove 
which burns a gas flame is certainly worth having for heating the 
tools. It gives a hotter and cleaner fire than the wood fire in 
the canner ; it heats the steel more quickly and saves cleaning and 
retinning the tools so often 
(Figs. 28 and 29). 

A portable canner is a 
necessary convenience for out- 
of-door canning. This may 
either be homemade or pur- 
chased. There are a number 
of portable canners at reason- 
able prices on the market at 
present. Considering the fact 
that most concerns furnish 
tipping copper, capping steel, 
and blanching trays with the 
outfit, it is cheaper to buy 
one complete than to attempt 
to build one and purchase a 

set of tools. The essential ^''«- 23.— a homemade fly-trap. 

feature of such a canner is a good, large fire-box, above which 
is a compartment for heating water. In the water compart- 
ment are placed two or three wire baskets for handling a (juantity 
of fmit at one time in blanching or a number of jars or cans in 
processing. A wooden rack placed below these baskets raises them 
above the fire-box and allows circulation of the water around jars 
and prevents breaking during the pi'ocessing. For this tank 
there must be a close-fitting cover (Fig. 30). 

A large tub of cold water for cooling tins should be placed 
beside the canner. When canning in glass out of doors, a cloth 
should be provided to place over the jars immediately after re- 




44 



siccKssFiL canmm: AM) i'i:i:si;i;\iNf I 



moviiiiT llu'iii ri'om processing:, to pi-cvciit tin- coM hn-i-zf 1"i-oim 
slriUiiii,' the j^'lass .-iiid hi-fakiiiir it. 



SKI -K( "I" I N ( ; (•( )N" TA I N KUS 



Types of Containers. — Tlic type ol" coiitaiiifr is very inii)or- 
taiit and shoultl hv c-onsidcTcd wlicn tlic first ('<|uipMi<'nt for can- 




Fia. 24. — Mississippi club girls building a fly-trap for nut-of-door canning. 



nin},' is secured. The most I'SsiMitial feature to considei* is a 
perfect closui-e; then the size and shape desired for different 
I)rodnets. 

Ti)i Cana. — Wlien eanniiiL' is to l)e (h)ne in tin and th(^ Imyinc: 
is to ])e dii'ect from tlie mannfaeturer, it is verv neeessarv to order 



PEEPAKATION AND EUUITMENT 



45 



the cans as early as possible to take advantage of the lower prices 
offered before July 1. INIany firms close their factories after 
this date, and Avill not consider any order in less than carload 
lots. The same thing is time in some of the glass factories. If 
you anticipate canning in large quantities, make an estimate for 
your dealer or order early from the manufacturer. Tin cans 
are designated by number rath(>r than by the measure of liquid 
they carry, as is the case in glass containers (Fig. 31). Plat 




A convenient arrangement for out-of-door canning. 



No. 1 cans are the smallest that are advisable for use in home 
canning, and their use is very limited. The No. 1 flat or squat 
can is more attractive than the tall No. 1 for the most of the prod- 
ucts packed in so small a tin, and is especially desirable for such 
packs as sweet Spanish pimientos, figs, tomato paste, etc. The 
No. 2 tin can is the size most generally used for canned vege- 
tables and small fruits. Corn and peas are more easily sterilized 
in this size tin, and for that reason these products sthould not 
be packed in any larger container. No. 3 can is used more often 
in some localities than No. 2, especially for canning peaches, 
tomatoes, pears, etc. (Fig. 32). 



•in 



SUCCKSSKlh CANNINC AND I'lMiSIlllVING 




PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



47 




Fig. 27. — Canning tomatoes from the scholarship plot, State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va. 




Fig. 28. — A kerosene stove which burns a gas flame for heating soldering tools. 



•IS 



sri'CKssFi L CANNINC AND 1'i:i:si:k\i NG 



Th( I iKiiiu l-lini (I Clin is id ssjiiy wlnn ciiiiniiiLr lnMcics. plums, 

clirrrii'S, licrls. piiiiipkin, ;iih1 lioiuiny. uliicli may not he pai'l<<"il 
ill tilt' (tr-(linary liii cans. Iircausc tlicy ace alTcflfil l»y tin- tin in 
siM'ii a way as lo rapidly l(»sc lln'ir color' ainl lla\iir. I'^iirs also 
will Ui'ip a lii-ii/litrr color when packed in these ciiamcl-liiicd 

cans. When enamel liixvl cans 
cannot lie secured, these |)ro(l- 
ucts shonld lie packed in jrlass. 
, I .\ (I. Ill I II II is soinet imes 
used for tomatoes and spinach. 
ImiI in such a lar^^c e()Mtaiiii'r 
a ereat deal Ioniser 1 imc is rc- 
(pnred to sterilize food; there- 
fore it is l)etti'l- suited for hotel 
aiul institution canniiifr. It is 
not grenerally advisable to pack 
in \o. 10 cans unless process- 
ing is done under steam pres- 
sure. Sometimes fruits are 
packed in these containers in 
a tliiii .syru]) dui'ing the very 
busy season, then opened, 
cooked more, and i'ei)ack('d in 
juarketable containers durin^jj 
the less busy season, as the 
orders come in. This is not 
practicable, however, unless a 




Fig.. 29 
for heating tools. A gasol 
coal bucket may also be used 



A nrc-pot burning corn-cobs ygj,y j^rgc Quautltv of ripenin'' 

Is. A gasoline hre-pot or char- •' to M. .' " l <- 

fruit nnist be taken care of in a 
very short wliilc, and time cannot be allowed for plumping and 
careful J)ackill<.^ O'ften semi-ti-opical fruits are handled in this 
manner in the orchards and ship])ed to the larire packing-houses, 
where they are repacked in smaller commercial containers be- 
fore marketing. 

77(c square tin caiis are sometimes used for asparagus tips. 
]n California such a container is more generally used for this 
product than the round can. 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



49 



The cans described above are those which can be secured with 
solder hemmed caps. 

"Sanitary" Cans. — The so-called "sanitary" cans are widely 




Fig. 30. — A folding portable canner. (Courtesy of Hamp Williams, Hot Springs, Arkansas.) 




Fit., .il. — Standard sizes of tin containers. 



used by commercial packers. They require a machine for seal- 
ing. A small hand machine for sealing special sanitary cans 

is illustrated here (Fig. 33). The cans with the proper closure 
4 



no 



SUCCESSFDI. CANMNC AND I'KKSKRVINO 



to use in this inacliiiir an' a litlli- iiini'c cxiiciisivc, perhaps, than 
the rt"j-iila!* fans in stoclv. hut the tiiiic and jiiatcrial saved by 
l.liis pnx-css more than cover tlie extra ehar^'e. This lucthoi] 




Fia. 32. — Size of caiis used for household purposes. 



eliminates the use of solder and oanninE: flux in the sealing of 
cans. If machinery cannot be employed hand tools will be 
necessary (Fig. 34). It is necessary to designate the size when 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



51 



ordering cans, since the diameter of the opening should cor- 
respond with that of the capping steel to be used. There are 
two sized openings, 2Vie-in('h and 2V^g-inch. Cans with the 




Fig. 33. — Hand machine for sealing special sanitary cans. (Courtesy of Bowers Can Seal 
Company, Boston, Mass.) 



2Yjg-ineh opening are more generally used. The solder hemmed 
caps are preferable, because they save solder and time in put- 
ting them on. Plain tin caps are not worth considering. 



r,o si'cc'l'>;si'ri. CANMNC AND I'l: 1 :si;i:\ I N(; 

(I'hiss coiildiiurs arc iiioit \afir(l in si/rs and shapes tliaii llie 
till aiiil Itiid iiiorr opporM iiriity for (lispla> iiiL' a varirty of at- 
tractively packed products, both for tlic Ikuiic |i;iiiti"y and for 
market. 'I'lii-iiuudmiit. this hooU su'_'trest ions ar-e inaih' from tiiiu* 
to time aliout sahil)h' products in coiiuiiercial paeUau'i'S. This 
is for the j)Ui"i)Ose of eii('()ura'4iM<^ the canniuL'. pr-csi-rviiiLT, and 




Fio. 34. — Capping steel and tipping copper. 

sellintr of surplus products. The hiirhcst quality of commercial 
products on the market should tend to stimulate ideals and 
standards (Fij^:. 35). These jars can be o])taincd in one-half 
pint. ])in1, (piart, and one-half Lrallon sizes. 

Selection of Jars. — Jars should be selected with reference to 
suitable size and shape for the product to be packed, keepinjr in 
mind economy in the initial purchase and durability. Other 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 53 

important considerations are beauty of proportion, tint and 
quality of glass. Not only are these (pialities considered by 
those who are packing for high-class sales, but also by tlie house- 
wife who enjoys artistic expression through arrangement and 
preservation of beautiful form and color in skilful packing. The 
square jar is effective for showing quality and pack. 

Lightning Seal. — The wide-mouth glass-top jar with wire clamp 
which is attached to the neck of the jar is a satisfactory one. A 
jar with this closure is known as one with a "lightning seal." 
This seal is made by different manufacturers and put on the 
market under various trade names. A jar with this closure is 




Fig. 35. — A group of jars for household use. 

an easy one to handle while the jar is still hot. Immediately 
after processing and sterilizing it is necessary only to push down 
the lower clamp around the neck of the jar. This gives the 
amount of pressure necessary to assist in the sealing of the jar 
as it cools. The rubber used is placed in the groove of the neck 
of the jar, and the cap fits down on the top of the rubber, 
which prevents the bottom of the glass top from coming in direct 
contact with the top of the jar. It is the rubber that makes 
possible this seal by adhering to both the top and the jar. Every- 
thing must be very hot to obtain a good seal, and for this reason 
directions are often given for cooking the fniit in the jar. 
This heating drives out some of the air, forming a partial 
vacuum in the jar. At this point the clamp is pushed down, 
preventing entrance of air as the jar cools. The jar is then 



r.i 



sr(VF,ssrrL canninc and imikskrving 



sralt'd liy IIk' jnrsMiic of jiir on the outside. Soiiicliiin'S u jar of 
lliis type is s|tol<fii of as a "sclf-scaliiit;" jar. This sort of s<'al- 
ini: lias^Mvat atlvaiita^^- ovrr the old screw-top jars. 

St rt ir-toi) jdi's wliicli demand handling' while liot are dillicult 
to serew on tiirhllv enonirh to insure irood .sealinj,'. If the tops 




.1 li c 

I'ui. 3f). — Cummerrial jars for spnrial prndurts: A. in-nunop v.^sp-.«!llapr(l jar, liprmctir fop. 
B. 12-ouiK-c Kla.ss-top, scrow-rini jar, riibluT used. C. I()-ounri' jar with litTiiiftio cap. 

are screwed down by hand, th{> wrists l)ecoine tired and cramped 
before many are seabed, and it is iincei'tain whether all are suffi- 
ciently tij2:h1. Tlici'e is a simple tool on the market for screw- 
in<i' on toi)s. 

The zinc lop should not be used, because fi'uits and vegetables 
which contain acids are nniit to eat after contact with the 
zinc cap. New tops .slionld be secured for all jars of this 
type. The ^dass used in this t\i)e jar is usually tinted. While 
the fruit will be easily kept in this ^dass. it pves the fniit an 



PRKPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



55 



unnatural appearance, and it is not so attractive. When pack- 
ing- fresh fruit and vegetables for sale, the fair natural color 
enhances the value of the finished product. 

Safety-valve Seal.—T\\c jar with the safety-valve seal is- beau- 
tiful (Fig. 80, c). It is made of clear flint glass, and the seal is 
the same principle as the lightning seal. While being processed 
the lid is held in place by a wide black clamp which may be re- 




A B c 

Fig. 37. — Appropriate containers for exhibit purposes: \. Quart square jar. B. Cham- 
pagne shaped ketchup bottle. C. Pint square jar. 

moved when the jar is cold and sealed. It then presents a very 
attractive appearance. Jars of this type are more expensive 
than the other types mentioned. They are often used by select 
preserving kitchens that furnish goods for (high-class, fancy trade 
(Figs. 36, 37 and 38). 

The "Hermetic" Jar. — The hermetical sealing jar with the 
gold lacquered cap and wire clamp is used more often for com- 



5G srccKSsi ri, cax.\i.\(; and i'i:i;si:ii\i.\(; 

iiHiri.iI piir|M)Sfs, tliou^'h there are some liouselioUl jars of this 
tvpc iPii the market. The <'ap is said to be washed in a i^cohl 
lac<|iier tliat. will not In- alVectid hy vej;et<ible or fniit acids 
coininj,' in eoiitact. with it. Aronnd tlie inside edj,'e of the eaj) 
a {jasUet or rim of sf'alinjr eomposition fills the spaee between the 
caj) and jar. and this softens when ln-ated and adhi'iTs to tiie 




Fig. 39. — Stoneware jars. (Courtesy uf Western Stoneware Company.) 

jar. The sealing of this jar is praetieally the same as the lifrht- 
ning seal jar. Heating forces out the air and forms a partial 
vacuum in the jar; then the wire clamp, which should be 
placed on the jar at the beginning of the process, furnishes 
sufficient pressure to prevent cold air from rushing into the jar 
as it cools. It is the pressure of the outside air, nearly sixteen 
pounds to the square inch, which keeps the jar sealed. Com- 




^fe«?» — 



t^^~^> 





Fio. 38. — Hand sealing machine for glass jars. 
(Courtesy of American Pure Food Process Co., Baltimore, MdO 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 57 

mereial products are often packed in jai'S with this type seal. 
Because the sealing composition is under the edge of the cap and 
not exposed, it is not so liable to become punctured by mice 
and roaches nibbling it, as is sometimes the cavse where rubbers 
are used. 

Rnhher rings dry and deteriorate with age. They become 
porous and sometimes crack. When this happens, the air gets 
in and, because the partial vacuum is broken, the seal is no 
longer good and the product will spoil. A perfect seal, where 
the rubber ring is exposed, will hold only so long as the life of 
the rubber lasts. In selecting inibber rings it is wise to secure 
tlie best and always use new ones. The price of a dozen rings 
is less than the value of the contents of one jar, so it is economy 
to have new rubbers each year. The thick, red and gray rubber 
rings are among the best. The black one is better than the 
white, because the chemicals used to bleach this kind cause 
it to dry, crumble, and crack in less time than the better-grade 
mbber. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the care necessary to protect the food from insects while work- 

ing on tlie porch or under the trees. 

2. Wlien considering a piece of equipment, what woukl determine its 

selection ? 
',i. What principles are involved in tlie arrangement of tables in Fig. 10? 

4. State, in the order of their importance, the features to be considered in 

the selection of containers. 

5. Why are plain tin containers unsatisfactory for some fruits and vege- 

tables? What kind of containers would you iise for these foods? 

When is glass preferable to any other? 
(5. Describe the principle of the so-called " lightning seal." 
7. When a rublM'r ring is used in the seal, which kind would you select and 

why should it be renewed every year? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bitting, A. W. and K. G., "Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," 
11)16. Tlie National Canners' Association, Washington, D. C. 30 
cents. 



,f,,S SITCKSSKII. CANNINC AND I'l; i:si:i;\ I N( i 

•J. ^.K^:.\/.^;.M.l;. 1. 1'., t iiilcil Statis I )(|)ai liiiciil of A;,'ritiiltmf. I'iirincrs' 

Hiillftiii .{.')!•, ■' ( uiiiiin;,' \ i'j,"'tulili> in tlii' llninr,'" llHO. Stcrctuiy 

itf Aj.Mi(iiltiirf, \\ ii.sliin;;loii, D. ( '. 
.1. Ukka/kaij-;. .1. F., rnitt'cl Stutort DcpartirMiit nf A;;ii<iiltiiic. I'armcrB' 

lUilIctiii "iJl. " ( 'aiuiiii'r 'ronmtof.s at ll(»iiic ami in < luli Wdrk." l!ll:j. 

Si'di'tary of A;.'ii<iiltiirc, \\'asliiii';t<tii, 1). ( '. 
I. (ion. II. II. 1'. and I'I.kiciiku. W. K.. rnitc(l Slates l)c|iarliiH'nt of A;.'ri- 

(iillnic. {''arnicis' Hulli-tin 4JtJ. "('annin<r I'caflirs on llic l''arm, ' 

litld. Sii|icrint('iult'iit of Docununts, < Jovcriinjiiil l'rintin;r < Mlifc. 

\Vasliin;.'l<.n. D. ('. ."> cents. 
."). .McDo.NAi.ii. M.w < .. and Siam.kv. l/di.^i:. I'niversitv of Mis.'^onri. " Tiie 

{'reservation of Food in tiif Home." V(d. 1."), N'o. 7, KxtenHioii Series 0, 

Mareli. I'.iU. I'niversity of Missouri, ("ohnnbia, Mo. 
("p. KosK. li.oKA, Cornell Readinj.' Courses, " 'llio Treservation of Food 

in tlie Home." 1012, parts 1, 2, and :{. New York State Coilefje of 

.\<,'rienlture, Cornell University, Itlu'oa. X. ^'. 

7. Shaw, S. 1?.. North Carolina Oepartinent of .\^Mieiiltiire. " The Home 

('annin<r of Fruits and \'e<,'etal)les." Xortli Carolina Dejiartment of 
Af^riculture, Raleigh, N. C. 

8. I'nited States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service, 

Oflice of Extension Work in the South: A-81, "Canning, Preserving, 
and Pickling": 782, " Peppers"; 775. " Use of Vegetables from Win- 
ter Garden." OfTice of Extension Work in the South, States Relations 
Service, Department of Agriculture. Washington, T>. C. 

!>. United States Department of Agriculture, Series of " N. R. Circulars," 
Oflice of Exten.sion Work in the North and West, States Relations 
Service, Department of Agriculture. Washington. D. C. 

10. Farmers' Bulletin No. 734, "Flytraps and Their Operation": Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 927, " Home Conveniences." Division of Publication, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



CHAPTER IV 

CANNING IN TIN 

Since canning in tin is becoming much more widety used in 
the househokl, it ma}' well be presented first. On the farm, for 
instance, where there is a large yield of fruit or vegetables to 
be canned, the canning process in tin can be handled with more 
speed, less danger of breakage, and at a very much smaller 
initial cost than canning in glass. For all these reasons, in many 
localities the canning in tin is preferred. 

Preparation for Canning in Tin. — Special equipment for 
canning in tin should be assembled early in the season, as prices 
are better then and there may be difficulty later in securing 
certain supplies, as already suggested. The cans should be 
ordered early and the processing vessel, whether it be a com- 
mercial canner or one made at home, should be installed some 
time before the actual canning is to begin. When the canner is 
decided upon and the solder hemmed caps and cans ordered, 
the next to consider is the tipping copper, capping steel, and a 
file. To clean these tools, a canning flux should be made and 
some powdered sal ammoniac placed in a can to rub the tools 
witli after heating. 

Making Flux. — Put some commercial hydrochloric (muri- 
atic) acid in a glass or crockery vessel (not metal), add strips 
of sheet zinc until no more can be dissolved. To this add an 
equal quantity of water. Label this "Flux" and use carefully. 
Very little must be used, and care must be had not to allow any 
of it to enter the can, as it will injure the contents. The use of 
flux is described under "Capping." When canning, have one 
vessel (a can will do) with enough flux in it to clean the tools. 
Keep separately, in a glass bottle, the quantity to be used in 
sealing cans. 

Cleaning and Tinning the Steel and Copper. — It is of first 
importance to have capping steel and tipping copper in good 

59 



(50 Sri'CKSSKlL C.WNINC AND I'K l.Si;i;\ I NC 

coTulilioii. In case liny aii- rusty, tlii'\- may liavc to Im- lilcd. 
Otlicrwisi', riil)hinLr tlhin wiili coarse sainl |ia|Mi- or on a l»rick 
will SMJOOlli thrill, ("arc iiiiist lie taken to keep tin- (m1'_^- of tli.- 
cappint; sti-cl Iruf il" llic lilc is us.-d. iJolli ilir tip|)in^' copper 
and capi)ini: steel nnist lie kept tinned or coated witli solder to 
niake tlie solder llow evenly when scalin;^ the cans. Place a 
liandfnl of sal aitiiiioniac mixed with a i'ew i)ieces of soldci- ( one- 
half cupful of sal aiumoniac anil ilirer inches wii'e soMcrj into 
an old can. This |)ropoi-tion will he siit'licieiit for rctinninj^ 
the tools oni' lime. The sal ammoniac can he used again if 
more sohlei- is aihled. Heat the already siiioolh ti|)i)in.tr roppcr 
and cappiiiL:- steel until almost i-ed hot, dip into the tlux". then 
into the sal ammoniac and soldei-, tuniiiiLr them ali(»ut and 
rnhhine- them until lii'iuht and wi'll coated with solder; then 
dip into the llux auain. The best scalin-j can he done with the 
least ellorl if the tools are kei)t in a clean, hri-ht condition. 

Plenty of elean Avhite cloths should be at hand durinj? the can- 
ning process. ' There should be wire lifti'is for handling hot cans 
and blanching trays. Sufficient wood should lie jiiled near the 
eanner for keeping up the fire. A tul) of cold water for cooling 
the tins as soon as they are removed from the i)rocessor should 
be at one side of the eanner, and there should be a water supply- 
near at hand, because it will be necessary to change the water 
from time to time in order to have a cool supply. The equipment 
should be placed, if possil)le, where it can be used for the entire 
season. 

Having outlined a convenient arrangement of this equip- 
ment, the vai-ious stejjs in th.' i)rocess of canning in tin may next 
be considered. 

STEI'S T.\KKNr IN (WXNTXG IX TIN 

1. Selection of good sound fruit and vegetables is of jjara- 
mount importance. Unless the product to be caiuied is of the 
liighest grade and in ])rime condition, it is useless to hope that 
special care and skilful jKicking will result in anything more 
than (]isai)|)ointment and failure. In securiu'-r line (pndity, much 
dejx-nds upon having the vegetable or fruit absolutely fresh, 



CANNING IN TIN 



61 



crisp, and clean, and kej)!. cool. AH steps, from beginning to 
end, of any lot of canninsx should be carried through as rapidly 
as possible. A good slogan is, " One hour from the field to the 
can.'' 

2. Sorting and grading should be done very carefully, ac- 
cording to the size and degree of maturity and ripeness. Use 
only uniformly well-ripened products (Figs, 40 and 41). Dis- 
card all defective ones, and use together those of the same size. 
In canning, the flavor is retained only when young, tender. 




Fig. 40. — Sorting and grading tomatoes. 

quickly grown vegetables are used. Commercial concerns some- 
times have what they call grading paddles. They consist of a 
flat board with holes, which correspond to the opening in the 
glass jar in size. Peaches, for instance, which are too small 
are set aside to be packed as sliced peaches or for sweet pickles, 
and the ones which are too large are kept together, while all 
that slip through easily are made up together in one batch. 
This grading before cooking simplifies sorting when packing, 
saves much time, and gives a more uniform product throughout. 
3, Scalding, Peeling, and Coring, — Some fruits, such as 
peaches and tomatoes, are scalded in order to peel them smoothly. 



r.? 



SrCCKSSKl 1, CANM.N"; AM) I'KKSKKV IN(; 



I'lit. fruit HI- \rL:<'t;ililfs lo \h- sc;ilil<>l Into tr-ays or .s<iiiarf.s of 
cliccscclotli ami lower into boiling' watn- for on.- iniiiiitc (Fif?. 
4J). K'.inovr at oMcc to pn'Vt'Ul cooUiiiLr. I'liiii^^- into cold 
watrr, wliicli pnvrnls softt-niiifr of the fruit and causes it to 
shrink, luaUiui; the skin iiioro easily peeled from the flesh. ^Vllen 
the skin (Um'S not come oft' clean without tearing' bits of tiesh, 
it is an indication that the scalding' has not been successful. 
This may lie due to haviniT Mh' frnit too f,'reen, to overcookinfT, 
oi- to athlinj^ a larLre (juanlity of I'niil at one time, which too 




Fig. 41. — Iniform tomatooa together. 



quickly cools the water. A slender-pointetl knife is useful for 
peeling and coring. 

4. Blanching consists of jiluimiiiL;' the voirelable or fi-uit into 
a larpe amount of l)oilin,t,'' water for a slioi'l time. A wii-c 
basket or scjuare of clieeseclotli serves for handling: large iiuan- 
tities of fruit at one time. The lilaneh gives a more thonmgli 
cleaning, because the scalding water tends to remove the bacteria 
from the surface of the fruit or vegetable. It also improves the 
flavor and removes strong odoi- and Havor from certain kinds of 
vegetables. The fruit shrinks in the ])lanch and becomes more 
flexible. A full pack is then more easily made. The time re- 



CANNING IN TIN 



63 



quired for blanching varies with the state of maturity of the 
(litferent fruits and vegetables. Blanching peaches and pears 
gives them a more transparent appearance, better texture, and 
mellow Havor. Using it for cherries will prevent s[)litting and 
cracking. Si)raying fruit with cold water after blanching will 
make it finer. Sometimes it is well to drop the vegetable into a 




Fig. 42. — Scalding tomatoes, using a square of cheesecloth. 

cold salt-bath for an instant after the blanching to make it more 
crisp. In the case of green beans, peas, and okra, such a cold salt 
dip may help to keep the green color. 

5. Sterilizing containers is very essential before packing 
them. This may be done while the fruit is being sorted. Wash 
the cans and drop into boiling water for' ten to fifteen minutes. 
On removing them from the water, turn open ends down on a 



04 SUCCESSFUL CAXN INC AM) I'll I;S1-.IL\ I NC 

I'Ican lowrl i() kcip out dust, ami air. II" stac-kiiiL' tlii-m. lurii 
o|)('ii ends of two cans toj^cthcr. 

<!. Packing. — The can slionid he lill.d as full as possililc with- 
out crusliiim- i)icccs. 'IMici'c sliouM he no sjiacc wliidi would 
allow tlif pieces to move ahoiil and liniisr and Itreak one another. 
hi ^'eiieral, when |)ackin},'' in tin for I lie niai'kct, it is well to do 
suf'licicnt wi'ii;hin,Lr to insure ininimuni wci'/hts fi'oni fallinjr Ijclow 
the standard cliosen. Fcch'ial and most state laws reipurc that 
cans 1)0 lillcd as full of food as is i)racti('ahl(' for ])roeessing, 
and that they contain only cnoufjh liquor to fill the space and 
cover the contents. IMan in advance and woi-k i-a|)idly. Do not 
allow filled cans to stand hefoi-e adding' li<|uid and exhausting', 
l)ecause to do so will injure the i)r(Kluct. Add .scasonint,' and 
mark the cans with pencil or knife to show^ contents. 

7. Adding Water, Brine, or Syrup. — Add the liquid to 
within one-fourth of an inch of the top. Shake the can and tap 
gently on the table to dispel air within the can. Now clean 
and wipe the groove around the opening and slip on the solder 
hemmed cap (Fig. 48). 

8. Capping. — I"se a small bi-ush, cord, or little moj), made by 
tying a clean white cloth around the end of a small stick for 
applying the tlux around the groove, being verj- careful to 
allow none of it to enter the can. The flux is used to make the 
solder adhere to the tin. Apply the clean, hot capping steel, 
holding the cap firmly in place with the center rod while lower- 
ing the steel. Turn the steel steadily nntil the solder flows: 
a half turn forward, a half tuni l)ack-, with a sudden twist 
forward again to swing the melted solder around tlie groove 
evenly while lifting the steel. Hold the center rod linidy until 
the solder cools, making a perfect seal. 

9. Exhausting. — Place the cans in trays and lower into l)oil- 
ing water to within one inch of the top to drive the air out of 
the cans. Let them stay the shortest time possible to drive out 
the air. Dense foods like corn and sweet potatoes require a 
longer time for exhausting than products which are more juicy. 
The denser foods are poorer conductors of heat, and it takes a 
longer time for the contents in the center of the can to b(>conic 



CANNING IN TIN 



65 



heated. Ordinarily three minutes is long enough for exhausting 
cans not larger than No. 3. Exhausting is necessary. If omitted, 
the air left in the can expands, causing it to bulge. The can 
may not resume nonnal shape, or, if it does and is exposed to 




Fig. 43.— Capping 



Fig. 44. — Tipping. 



a warmer temperature, it may again expand, giving the appear- 
ance of a "swell." Future orders may be cut off because of a 
single can like this. The presence of air in the can may cause 
the tin to dissolve more rapidly and enter into the food. 

10. Tipping. — Immediately after exhausting, close the small 
5 



(;<•) 



SUCCESS l-T I, C.WMNC AND I'llKSKKX I NC 



liolf ill tlif top of the can. Drv \\\r cap. appl\ tliix as for 
cappiiiL'. ami use a little wiiT soMri- i l''i'_'. II . Hold the hot 
tippiiiLT coppci' ill tlir I'i'jlil liainl. placiiiir t.lii' point ovi'i* tlir holt-, 
ami harrly toiirh ihr soliln- to it. I'>riii^: the hot copixT ver- 
tically o\cr the lioir and lift it so that only a licad will drop 
aiiil niakc a neat, round tip. 

11. Processing is lu-atinuMo storilize the eonteiits of tlic cans, 
wliieli ha\-e been packed, cxlinustcd, and tiitped. In a liot-watcr 
(•aniier, the water should be boilinpr vi'/orously wlieii t-he cans 
Lfo in. Lowei' the can slowly under the water and watch for a 
showei" of Imlihles. 1 1' t he huhhles arc sccn, this shows t hat there 




Fio. 45. — Heating tools, rappinc, and tipping. 

is a leak at the i)oint from which the l)ul)))lcs come, and tlie can 
must be taken out and resoldercd. Account .should be taken of 
the time bej^inninfj: when the water first boils after emeririntj: 
from the cans. Keep it boiling continually. When processing 
in a steam-pressure canner, begin counting time when the gauge 
denotes the amount of pressure you wish to use in processing. 
In intermittent processing, the vegetable is processed for forty- 
five to sixty minutes at boiling temperature on each of three 
successive days. The time is sometimes reduced to two days 
with very young, fresh sti-ing beans and other more easily 
sterilized vegetables. 



CANNING IN TIN 




67 



cs 



St (■( KssKi L ( WMNC AM) I'l; i-.si;i;\ I \(; 



111. Cooling. — Cool all products in tin as ([uickly as jjossihlc 
al'tti- proctssiiijx to stop llir cookiirj-. ( )v('rc()()kin|^ lircaks down 
tile ti'xtiii'f of fiMiit and iii.jui'cs the llavor and color. Plunge 
cans into very cold water ininiccliatdy, especially when jjnx-ess- 
ini; intiTniittently. Never stack cans to<;ether until entirely 
cold. The cans should be dried before Storing' to prevent rust- 
ini:. This may he dom; by eitlier drj'iiif; them witili a cloth or 
standinir them in the sun after the plun^'e in cold water. 

1.'). Test for Defects. — Tap the top of the can with a metal, 
and if the containers are st-alnl a clear, rin<rin<^ sound is noticed. 
If the seal is imperfect a dull sound will be heard. It is a 
I'ommon sight in factories to see a workman beating a rapid 




I-abi'llinp. 



tattoo on the ends of cans with a metal. He can detect by the 
sound of a single blow^ when all is not right (see Figs. 45 
and 4()). 

14. Labelling. — Cans should never be labelled until perfectly 
cold (Fig. 47). It is better to wait five or ten days so as to be 
sure that they are all sound. If products are to be sold, they 
should be freshly labelled just before shipping and liave the 
net weight stated in pounds and ounces, with packer's name 
and address on each can. Place the sealed end down so the 
smooth end wdll appear at the top when standing on the shelf. 
The paste used should be i)laced only on the label at the end, 
so that no paste will touch the tin. It may cause rust if the 
paste touches the can. 



CANNING IN TIN 69 



Paste 



1 cupful of flour 1 ciipful of cold water 

1 teaspoonful of powdered alum % toaspoonful of oil of cloves 

3 cupfuls of boiling water 

Mix the flour and one cup of cold water thorouiJ:hly. Add 
the boiling water and bring slowly to the boiling-point, beating 
all the while to prevent lumps. Boil for five minutes. When 
cooked, add the alum and oil of cloves, pour into glasses with 
covers. This will keep for some time and make an excellent 
paste for use in labelling cans and jars. 

Frequently the outside of the cans is lacquered before label- 
ling to prevent rusting. In damp climates, where cans rust 
easily, tliis is advisable. An attractive label will add a great deal 
to the appearance of the finished product, and it should be 
chosen carefully with this idea in view. 

Any one wishing to can for the market should look up the 
state laws and requirements about the matter. It is not so neces- 
sary to be familiar with the Federal laws unless interstate ship- 
ments are to be made. Detailed information on state laws and 
regulations may be obtained by writing to the State Food Com- 
missioner, State Board of Agriculture, and Federal rules and 
laws can be secured from the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Write for the publica- 
tions and state what products are being packed for sale. 

This information is given for the benefit of those who are 
canning for conmiercial purposes; every one who cans for the 
market should be encouraged to know the food laws. Such things 
sound more serious than they are, and one should not be over- 
whelmed with the seemingly endless details attached to the can- 
ning business. New facts pertaining to food conservation are 
being published constantly, and those who are interested in the 
various phases of the subject should keep informed by securing 
from their State College of Agriculture, State Experiment Sta- 
tions, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and the National Can- 
ners' Association, from time to time, all publications and reports. 



QT'ESTIOXS 

1. What 1- till' iiiiMiiiii;: (if cHiciciicy in caimiiij,'? 

•J. Dc-cniM' till- ciiiiiinii'Mil iiccdcil ami il> ai raii;.'ciiicML when jiri-|i:iriii;.' t<i 

t-aii ill t ill. 
;>. How is '■ lliix " iiiaiii'? I'or what is it used? 
4. What is vmir staiidani fm the cxti iiial a|p|M'araii((' of a tin of fniit or 

vt'^i'tulilc? Wliat sti|i^ ail' iif.c->ar\ to mmiiii- tliis >taii(laiti ■' 
f). IK'sciihe liuw- to (•t)at with suhh-r the ti|t|.iii;.' .-oiiiicr ami tlic caiPitiii^' 

steel. 
Cp. W hill -mil a tin lias l>een opened, wliat standard slionid tlie eontent.4 
eiiuul.' Wliat steps are neeessary to seeiire this stundurdY 

i:il!lJ(i(;i!.\l'IIV 
See end of Chapter \ I, paj^'c sil. 



CHAPTER V 

CANNING IN GLASS 

Canning in ylass is very similar to canning in tin. The 
same principles hold good thronghont. The initial cost of con- 
tainers is greater than when canning in tin, but for home use 
it is more economical, because glass is used year after year, 
while tin should be used only a single time. 

The fii'st four steps under "Canning in Tin" are also to be 
followed when packing in glass (see p. 60) ; the additional steps 
are given below. Convenient arrangement of all equipment is 
veiy essential before undertaking the work. 

5. Sterilizing. — Jars should be washed and placed, side down, 
in a vessel and covered with cold water. The water should be 
slowly brought to a boil and allowed to boil for fifteen minutes 
(Fig.' 48). 

6. Packing. — After selecting and sorting the fruit or vege- 
table for uniformity in ripeness and size, and after blanching it, 
the fruit should be arranged in the jar with reference to sym- 
metry and the best use of the space within the container. In 
placing the fruit or vegetables into a jar, a thin, flexible paddle 
or spatula, made out of cane or hard white wood, is useful. It is 
important to have a good, clear syrup. Clear, soft, or distilled 
water should be used. Sometimes better results could be ob- 
tained if the quantity of water used for making the syrup could 
be first boiled, strained, and cooled before using. Mix the sugar 
and water by stirring as it heats, to be certain the syrup is 
uniform (Figs. 49, 50, and 52) . 

7. Paddling. — A more slender paddle is used for taking 
bubbles of air out after the liquid has been added. This is done 
by running the paddle down the side of the jar and touching 
the bubble with the rounded end of the paddle. The air creeps 
up the paddle to escape and is displaced by the liquid. More 
liquid should be added after paddling in order to have the jar 

71 



srccKssi ri. (•.\nnin(; and i'i;r.M;i;\ in<; 



I'uU to (>vc!rll()\\ ill^^ 'l"licsr pjiddlis i-aii ciisily Im' iiiadi- al Ikhuu 
(Fig. 51). Jianiboo laiii' is sni1al»li' iiiatcii.il lor making them ; 




ail old lishinir i)ol(" will d<>. Split tlic caiiw. cut the paddlr niiir 
to twolvf inches lonir, Icaviiii:' a juiiit at the tof) I'm- a handle 



CANNING IN GLASS 



73 




Fig. 50.— Well-packed jar of peaches. 



:i 



SL'CCKSSI'l I, ( ANMNi; AM) J'ltKSKKN I N( I 



W'liiltli' llii' ntluT mil until tl;it, thin. ;iri(| llcxililf. Tln'M s;iinl- 
|i;i|>cr'. ir Lrfrcn IuimiIkjo caiic is iisi-tl, pliicc in the sun to di'v 
al'li'i' makiti'.: tlir pailillc. 

S. Adjusting the Rubber and Cap. — !'•<• sure tlir !-ultliii- is 
can-fully llattrnrd in its t^i'oovc and in* jiartidi- u[' I'niit ov serd 
is pi-csi-nt on it Krt"(iii' placinir on tin- cap. When a ^dass-top 
jar with wire clamp is used, place the lid on evenly and raise 
hot h clamps u|i. ttn' ujiper one i'astened to hold the lid in jdace. 
When a screW'top jai" is use<l, screw the 
cap evenly almut hall' way. Willi a her- 
metic jar no luhhei" I'in;^ is necessary; 
simply fasten the cap in place on tic- 
jar with the clamp. The hermetic jar is 
self-sealing as it cools, and does not need 
to have any adju.sting of the cap or clamp 
after processing, as is the case with each 
of the other above-named jars : simply 
leave the clamp in i)lace until the jar is 
entirely cold. 

9. Processing. — I'lace the jars on a 
wooden, galvanized, or wire rack to hold 
them off the bottom of the processor, 
which is directly over the fire. Sometimes 
a clotli is put in the bottom of the vessel 
before placing jars, but this is not a good 

TifJ. .11 —Paddles: a. Packing practicC, siuCC tllC Weight of tllC jai'S 
paddle, b. Syrup paddle. . 

presses the cloth against the bottom 
of tile jirocessor and often causes it to stick and burn. A rack 
w liich holds the jars up an inch or two off the bottom is l)etter. 
In a hot-water canner the water around the jars should he of 
the same temperature as the contents of the jar to prevent them 
from cracking, and the water should come within two inches of 
the tops of the jars. Have a tight cover for the vessel to keep 
in the steam. Do not count time until the water begins to boil. 
Keep it boiling steadily for the time required. Seal the jars 
air-tight promptly at the end of the processing, and remove 
them from the bath, being extremely careful not to allow a cold 




CANNING IN GLASS 



75 




7G SUCCESSFUL CAN N INC AND I'liKSKllVING 

•IraiiLrlit lo striko thoiii. In iiitoniiittcnt profossint? raise the 
(•lamp ()!' the jar at tin' IpcL'imiiiiir ol" cadi pn)c«'s.siii': to all<»w for 
cxpaiisidii. Seal at IIh- close ol" cacli prorcssiiiL''. Tlic licr'iiictic 
jai" is not a snitaMc onr i'or intci'niittcnt prcx-cssinir. i'riM-cssinj^ 
in ^'iass in a st('aiii-i)i'('ssMr(' carnicr is dcsci-iltcd in a later chapter. 
"One Period Proeessiiij; (I'ndiM' Steam Pressure)" (see p. 87). 

10. Labelling. — Haeh jar should he washed and polished 
hefore lahellini;'. Ilei'e aizain the elioice of the lahel should 
lie made carefully. One just larj^e enoufrh to have printed 
the necessary re(|uireinents is sufficient. Choose a neat label: 
white is preferable, witli ])]aiii, simple black printing. A fancy 
colored lahel may not ])e in harmony with the color of the 
contents of tlic jar and will dcti'act from the attractiveness of 
the product. Place the label on the plain side of the jar, mid- 
way between the seams and one-quarter inch from the lower 
edge. When labelling ])i-oducts to be sold, the name of the 
contents, name and address of the packer, and net weight in 
pounds and ounces must be stated. 

Storing Canned Products. — Store the canned products in 
a cool, dry, dai'k place. Light will cause the color of the 
products in gla.ss to- fade, while j)roduets in tin are, of course, 
not atfected by light. 

(,)rKSTIOXS 

1. Give in outline form and in order the steps necessary when canninjj in 

glass. 

2. What steps in this process ditlCr from the steps in caimiiiir in tin? To 

what are the differences due? 

3. Which container is more economical for liome use? Wliy is this true? 

4. State definitely tlic principles wliich arc the basis for all kinds of can- 

ning. 

i;ii'.i.i()(;i;Ai'iiv 

vSee end of C'liajiter VI. page S(). 



CHAPTER VI 
PROCESSING— HOT-WATER BATH 

Processing is the term applied to the operation of sterilizing 
or heating to destroy bacteria so that the canned goods will keep. 

All fruits and juicy vegetables are better in color and 
texture if sterilized at or near the boiling-point (212° Fahren- 
lieit). For tliis purpose the hot-water bath is commonly used. 
Sometimes these outits can easily be made at home, according to 
the amount of canning which is to be done. 

Homemade Canners. — If only a few jars or cans are to be 
processed at a time, then iiat-bottom vessels, such as a wash- 
boiler, ham boiler, preserving kettle, or bucket deep enough, to 
permit of being covered after the jars or cans are placed on the 
false bottom inside, will serve the purpose (Fig. 53). "When 
any of these utensils are used it is necessary to have a false 
bottom on which to set the jars or cans while processing. Narrow 
strips of wood or wire netting made of medium-sized galvanized 
iron may be used for this rack. The vessel should be equipped 
with a tight cover, preferably tin, which is kept in place while 
the sterilizing is being done (Fig. 54). Such small outfits are 
intended for use on an ordinary cook stove or range. 

A homemade canner for use out of doors, w^here larger quan- 
tities can be handled, may be made out of tubs or fifty-pound 
lard cans. Heat for these canners is furnished by portable 
stoves, or by furnaces made of brick or stone (Figs. 55 and 56) . 

Commercial Outfits. — The purchase of an expensive or 
especially made outfit in which to do the cooking is not necessary. 
There are, however, a number of inexpensive commercial out- 
fits which give very satisfactory results. Some of these canners 
are well built and excellent work can be done, both for com- 
mercial purposes and for home use. These outfits range in size 
from those having a four-can capacity to those having a capacity 
of a few hundred cans. The price varies according to size of 
the canner and the number of tools and accessories included in 
the outfit. 

77 



78 



SL'lTKSSl I h « ANMNt; AM) I'l: I.M;II\ I N( J 




Fu;. 5.'5. — All ordinary l)uck«'t used :is a processor. 




Fig. 54. — A wash-boiler with false bottom makes a touveuieut processor. 



PROCESSING— HOT-WATER BATH 



79 



Manufacturers furnisli catalogues ihaving full descriptions 
and price-lists of these various outfits, and in order to secure a 
canner best suited to conditions a study of different catalogues 
will help to make the decision. The requisites of a good com- 
mercial hot-water outfit may be enumerated thus : First, good 
quality of material used and of workmanship in the construc- 
tion ; next, the convenience and cost of operation, in order that 







i^HpP^^ 


B^^^r^^^S^'v- ^ ' jL /iS^Vl^ 


hi 


^m 






1 1 «» wrir jj .« 




E 


p- 7t, i>*» sr 


ill 



Fig. 55. — Canner made of tubs for outdoor um 



the best results can be obtained with the least possible ex- 
penditure of time, labor, and fuel. 

Equipment Accompanying the Purchased Canner. — The 
usual portable canner for out-of-door use consists of the following : 



Canner 
Fire-box 
Return flue 
Water tank 
Trays or wire baskets 
Ciiininey 
Tight cover 



Accessories 
Tipping copper 
Capping steel 
Can tongs 
Tray lifters 
Fluxing brush 
Cliarcoal bucket or 
Fire-pot for heating 
tools 



Materials 
Bundle of wire solder 
Powdered sal ammoniac 
Bottle of flu.K 
Coarse sand-paper or 
file 



yo 



SI ( ( Kssri L (■.\NMN(; AND I'KKSKltN 1 NC 



Sonic caiUH'is jiic idiiiul iiiid some rcctiiiiLTuljir in sliai)^. Tho 
l(»\\i'i* section Of firc-liox has a small ojx'iiiiijr in tin- door lliroiijzh 
which the sdhJcriiiLT tools may lie jihiccd for hcatiti<r. Tlic watci- 
ill the ii|i|M r .seel ion will heat more (|nickly if a smoke passau'e 

is |)laeed in such a way that Ihc 
water ehamliei" is heated from 
the smoke |>assa{;e as well as 
IVom the lire hox. Sometimes the 
chiiiiiicy is attached at the front 
of the caniier near the fire-l)OX 
door: 111 is necessitates the smoke 
ret ui'iiinpf from the outlet at 
the other end of the fire-box baek 
to the chimney, and, if the 
water chamber extends down be- 
tween tlie smoke passapre and 
the fire-box, the extra heat ob- 
tained in this way will cause the 
water to boil more quickly, thus 
saving time and fuel. The bas- 
kets or trays for holdino: the cans 
ill the canner are made of gal- 
vanized metal, with a wire bot- 
tom and w^ire handles. This bas- 
ket serves as a false bottom and 
iits into the water tank, resting 
slightly above the top of the fire- 
box and smoke passages. A 
wooden rack should be placed be- 
low this basket when canning 
in gla.ss so that the bottom of the metal tray will not rest directly 
on the fire-box. A basket full of cans may be lifted out with 
wire tongs. The top of the canner is fitted witii a tight cover, 
which keeps in the heat (Fig. f)?) . 

Canners should have water in the upper st^etion before a fire 
is built; if this is neglected with the type of canner which is 




Fig. 5C. — A homemade caiim 
brick fire-box and tub. 



PROCESSING— HOT-AVATER BATH 




81 



IU-. 



^'°' ^JbrMf^^^'inP construction of a hot-water canner 
(Philhpa & Buttorff. NashvUle, Tenn.) ^'"^^^- 



8v' 



srcc'KSSFri- < \.\nin(. and )'i:i.si:i;\ inc 



S(»l(ifiT(| loirtllit r. tin- soldo- will iin'lt ;iii(l tlic \\;it.i' w ill leak (uit, 
iiiakiiiu' the caiiiiii- iiscli'ss until it is iinnilid. 

Tile cirmiiK'V should 1m- tall i-iiou^'li to provide a j^'ood drauLrht 
and tn cari'v tlir smoke away. Tlic smoke fnmi a jiip'* wliicji is 



Fig. oS — A kerosene etove 
burning :>K!i» flame. (Glr)l)eGa8 
Light Company, riiiston,.Ma88.) 




Fig. 59. — A folding two-burner gasoline stove. (W.J. Baker Co., Newport, Ky.) 

too short is most objectionable to those who are canninjr (Fig. 
50). 

For Heating the Tools. — The tools may be heated in the 
fire-box of the caiUK r, hut the suj,'^'ested fire-pot. charcoal bucket, 
or gas-fiame stove is better for this purpose, since the tools heat 
more (|uickly and do not have to be cleaned so often (Fig. 58), An 



PROCESSING! — HOT-WATER BATH 83 

orilinaiy bucket -with a liole cut out of one side near the bottom 
will make a good sulxstitute for a fire-pot if charcoal or corn- 
cobs are burned in it. Care must be taken to have the fuel 
burned to a bed of glowing- coals before attempting to heat the 
tools. This is necessary to keep the copper and steel smooth 
and clean (Figs. 58, 59 and 60). 

A Time-table for Use in Canning Fruits and Vegetables 
When the Hot-water Process is Used. — To obtain satisfactory 
results Avitli these outfits, consideration should be given to the 
length of the sterilization period, which is indicated in the table 
below, in the column headed "Process." Since the temperature 
cannot be controlled below the boiling-point, it is necessary to 
start counting the time when the water begins to boil and keep 
the boiling constant throughout the process. Complete steriliza- 
tion can be obtained by following this table if the essentials as 
outlined in other chapters are fulfilled. 

Intermittent Processing. — The vegetable is processed for 
45 to 90 minutes at boiling temperature on each of three 
successive days. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe an outfit for processing by the hot-water bath which may be 

made at home. Explain the principle wliich makes necessary each 
detail described above. 

2. If purchasing a commercial hot-water outfit, what points sliould be 

considered? 

3. How will the position of the chimney on a conmiercial canner infiuence 

the time needed to heat the water? 

4. Describe a homemade fire-pot. What fuel may be used in it? In what 

condition should the fuel be before placing the tools in it? Why is 
this care necessary ? 

5. Why do starchy vegetables require a longer processing tlian those 

containing a large percentage of water? 

6. Why is it necessary to keep the temperature constant during tho 

processing? 



SI 



SlClKSSKll. CANMNC AM) I'1;1.M;1;\ 1 N( ; 



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PROCESSING — HOT- WATER BATH 



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riilili>lni| li\ Nail, t aiiiiciN' Assoc, Wiisliili^toii, I). ( '. ;i(l cfiitj*. 

-. i;iiiiN(i, A. \\ ., riiillctin !•. " I'ldci'ssin;.' and I'l-ciccss I )c\if<'s." Na- 
tional ('annci>' A vMuiat iini. \\ a^-li i ii;jtnii. I). ( '. 

:t. ( iininK'icial (•alal(i;,'ii('s fmin nianiil'attiii crs of (•aiint'r>, j^lass and tin 
contiiiiHTs, and otlicr <'(|ui|inH'nt. (Sec A|)|>('ndi\. ) 

4. CuKswivii.. Mauy V... and I'owKi.i,, Oi.a, T. S. Department of Afiiieultiire, 
I'arnicrs' IWiIletin No. S.')."}. '•lionn- Cannin;: of I'lnits and \'e;:et4ililes," 
States Itcdations Service, ( )llifi' of K.\ten>inn W mk Snutli. I". S. De- 
partment of Ajjriciiltuie. \\'asliinj;ton, D. ( '. 

o. t'REswELL, Mauy E., Geor{;ia State College of A^'iitnliure. ' Home Can- 
ning of Fruit and Vejret allies," 101."). PuMished liv State ('nllet,'e of 
Afrrienltnre, Athens, (Ja. 

(>. " Creole Cook IJook.'' PuMislied liy I'icniiinir. N<\\ Orleans. La. 

7. Kah.mku. Fa.nnik Mkukitt, '" Boston Cookinf: School Cook Hook." I'.MiT. 

Little, i'.rown & Co., P.oston, .Mass. .fLSO. 

8. McKi.MMoN. dANK S., Xoitli Carolina .V'.'ricnltnral iv\t<'n>ion Service. 

" CaniiiiiL: and l're~(i\ ini; with 4-11 I>i"and Keeipes." .Tune, IHIC). 
State Dcjiaitinciit of ALirirnltiirr. Kaleij.']!. X. C. 
!•. Si'KiNG, IIei.kn .M., "Indixidua! Keciiu's in Ise at Dre.xel Institute." 

100!>. dolin C. Winston Comjiany, Philadelphia, Pa. IT) cents. 
HI. I iiitcd States Department of A<iriculture. bureau of Clicmistrv: In- 
formation concerninjj state laws }rovernin<; jiackajics and labelliufr of 
canned ])roducts can be obtained from State Colle<.'es of Afrriculturc. 
Similar information toncn ninL: interstate shipment of canned prod- 
ucts can be obtained from the L'. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington. D. C. 

11. I'nited States Department of Agriculture, Circular A-Sl, "Canning, 

Preserving, and Pickling": 782, "Peppers"; 77."). " I'se of \'ege- 
tables finni Winter Carden." Can be secured from the Ollice of Ex- 
tension Wdrk in the South, States Relations Service, Department of 
Agricultuic, Washington, D. C. 

12. United States Department of Agriculture, Scries of " N. 1!. Circulars." 

issued by Ollice of Extension Work in the North and West, States 
Relations Service, Department of .Xgriculture. Washington, D. C. 

\'.\. \'ANi)KnMii;r. Sadu: I?., Columbia Inixcrsity. " IMiysical and Chemi- 
cal Tests for the 1 loii-^cwife." 'rcchnical Kducatinii P.ullctin \o. lit. 
Teachers' Colle;;e. Ccdundiia Ciiix cr-ity. New ^'ol k (ity. Id cents. 

14. Ckiks.s. W. \ ., ■' I'arm and Home Canning," Circulai' No. l.").S. also 
"Canning Fruits .iiul \'egetables," No. 1; |)ul)lished by University of 
California, I'crkclcx . ( al. 



CHAPTER VII 

ONE PERIOD PROCESSING (UNDER STEAM 
PRESSURE) 

One general method of canning has been followed since the 
beginning of the nineteenth century, that is, sterilizing by means 
of moist heat. As the industry has developed there have been 
improvements made in the different steps of the canning process 
from time to time. Since all successful canning depends upon 
l)roper sterilization by means of heat, it can readily be seen that 
minor differences in procedure may be followed with success, 
provided the principle of applying sufficient heat to make the 
product sterile is carried out. 

Advertising material has frequently been issued calling at- 
tention to "New Methods " which were in reality simply varia- 
tions in procedure. The various terms in common use in different 
parts of the country may be classified somewhat as follows : 

1. From the standpoint of when the product is packed into 
the jar. 

2. From the standpoint of the degree of heat used in steriliza- 
tion. 

In the first is found what is sometimes called " The Open 
Kettle Method." Formerly in household canning the process 
consisted of cooking the fruit in an open kettle until it was sup- 
posed to be sterilized and putting it hot into hot jars. Since 
the food was open to contamination before the lid was put on 
the jar, mold was frequently found on canned fruits. With the 
exception of tomatoes it is practically impossible to keep vege- 
tables canned in this way. More recently widespread demand 
for canned products has brought into household use a safer 
procedure which has long been used commercially; that is, steri- 
lizing the food in the closed jar. "When the practice of sterilizing 
food aftei- it was packed in the jar was firet begun it was often 
tei-med " The Cold Pack Method," because the products were 

87 



j^s , sraKssi TL ( .\.\m.\(. and i'i;j>hj;\ inc 

iri'iicrally packed i-aw in jai's. Latrr, lioucxcr, this proi-cdiirc lias 
lii'cii niddilirtl, ami imw lu'iidiicts ol' line (|iiality ace usually 
hiaiu'lieil hd'ort' j»ackiii.L: willi a linal addition of hot watfi'. hot 
liriiu', or syrup. Meats arc i)a(;kc'd hot alter a preliminary 
cookinj,'. 

I'mlei- the second elassifieation iiiij,dit be plaeetl the terms 
desi^''iiatiii;Lr the ditrcreiit tem|)erat ures applied in sterili/ing. 
Proeessinpf c^'i-tain products at linilinLT may he aeeomplishcd by 
either a continuous period of sterilization or intermittent periods, 
depeiidinu- upon the difdeulty of sterili/inj,^ the product. The 
procediii-e ol' stei-ilizin«r products intermittently has been tei'ined 
"The Intermittent Method." rroeessin<r iiiuler steam pressure 
can always be accomplished in one |ieriod : for this reason this 
I)roce(hire is called *' The One Period Method." 

As a matter of fact, all .juicy aeid fruits and tomatoes never 
reipiin* more than one jicriod of process at boilinjj: temperature 
ill tlu' water bath, while other vcLretables, such as peas, beans, 
c orn, and sweet potatoes, are more safely processed if the products 
are subjected to a boiling temperature for one to one and one-half 
hours on each of three successive days. Only one period of proc- 
essing is necessary for sterilizing, even the products which are 
most difficult to keep, if they are processed under steam pressure. 

Kven another classification has been made from the stand- 
point of the canner used. On(> procedure has been termed the 
hot w^ater method, another the water seal method, another the 
steam pressure method, and so on. These terms have been most 
confusing to students aitd inexperienced canners because they 
are not based upon a cleai' iniderstaiiding of the principles 
involved. 

From a bacteriological standpoint the canning of meats, 
protein vegetables, such as peas and beans, and the vegetables 
having denser tissues, such as corn, sweet pot<itoes, and pumpkin, 
is more safely accomplished wnth the steam pressure outfit. All 
bacteria in the spore state, however resistant, can be destroyed by 
subjecting them to a temperatuie of 240 degrees or 2;')0 degrees 
Fahrenlieil, moist heat, for varying lengths of time. A steam- 
pressure canner is necessary to produce sueli temperatures. 



Fig. 62. 



Fig. 61. 





Fios. 61 and 62. — A steam retort for home canning. 
(Northwestern Steel and Iron Works, Eau Claire, Wisconsin.) 




Fio. 63. — Another type known as the water-seal canner requires only a small amount of 
water and it can be raised quickly to the boiling point with the use of very little fuel. A 
Blight pressure can be secured. 




FlQ. 64. — Another slcarii-prutisure outtil tor home cauuiDg. 



ONE TERIOD PROCESSING 89 

Steam Retorts. — Iron boxes or steel cylinders, known as 
retorts, are used in processing by steam at a temperature above 
the boiling-point {i.e., higher than 212° Fahrenheit). The retorts 
may be vertical or horizontal, the size being determined by the 
number of cans to be handled daily. 

In the vertical retorts steam may be used alone or it may be 
introduced into water; in the horizontal retorts steam alone is 
used. Vertical retorts are used where canning under high tem- 
l)erature is desired in the home, and in small canning plants. The 
steam pressure may vary from five to fifteen pounds, thus giving 
a temperature of 220^ Fahrenheit (105° Centigrade) to 255° 
Fahrenheit (124° Centigrade). The proper control of time and 
temperature is very important. This is regulated by recording 
thermometers and temperature controllers attached to tlie retort. 

Small Outfits for Home Canning. — An expensive equipment 
is not necessary when canning in small quantities at home. A 
variety of small steam canners for home canning are on the mar- 
ket (Figs. 61, 64 and 65). The prices vary according to the size 
and quality of material used in making them. The construction 
of these outfits resembles that of the regiilation steam boiler. 
They are made of a high-grade metal, and the seams are so riveted, 
soldered, and joined as to make them water-tight and steam-proof. 
A band of packing is placed around the groove in the outer rim of 
the cover, which keeps the inside chamber steam-tight when the 
cover is clamped on. This part of the canner wears out after a 
time and should be replaced if the canner is to continue to give 
the best results. 

A brass pet cock which allows for the free circulation of steam 
and escape of dead air is screwed into the cover. This should be 
left slightly open while processing. 

There is a dial gauge, the needle of which moves upward Avhen 
the temperature of the interior of the canner rises above boiling 
(212° Fahrenheit). The figures on the face of the dial indicate 
the number of pounds of steam pressure and also its equivalent 
degree of heat. A safety valve is also attached. The "weight and 
arm" style valve automatically regulates the pressure inside the 
retort from one to fifteen pounds. The weight on the arm may be 



[)V 



SI {•( KssiTi. CAWIM. WD Ti; i>i:i; \ I Nt i 



set at aii\ poiiil on llic Ii-mt, as il is iiiadc 1<» slide hack and luilli. 
When, a ci'ilain lime I'm- tlic |inicr,ss is ik-siird tlif steam ;zan^M? 
slu'ulil bo uatelu'd until it sliows the n'<|uir(.'d ainount n\' pres- 
sure. Set tile weight so that eiinii^h slt'am will eseap*' from tin.' 
valve to retain tiiat teni|K'rature. After the processing the steam 
should he let off hy raising' the har on tlie valve hy openinj^ the 
pet eoek before removing' the cover of the eanner (.Fij,'. •J4;. 

A wire basket or galvani/ed crate eonies with the outfit. This 
is a great convenience, for it can be used in blanching, e.xhaustiiig, 
and stei-ili/.ing. AVhilc slerili/ing is in progress this basket <ir 
crate rests on a false l)oltoni, w hich is sometimes made of galvan- 
ized iron. This jx-rmits of free circula- 
tion of steam underneath and around 
the eans. The capacity of a small retort 
i.s about 150 to 2.')() eans daily, and it will 
generate and hold abont tif teen-pound 
pressure of steam. An outfit to be used 
in canning under steam pressure should 
lie l)uilt of strong material and have suffi- 
eient attaclniicnts to determine and regu- 
hite the temperature. The results of 
processing under steam cannot be as- 
sured without a tlifi-nuuiieter ; a gauge 
fur reading steam pressure is a substi- 
tute, since, as indicated in the table 
lielow, a definite ])ressure gives a definite degree of heat (Fig. 65). 
A steam retort may be converted into a hot-water eanner by 
filling the cainier with water and keeping it at a temperature of 
212° Fahi-enheit. Sonu' outfits re(|nire that the steam be piped 
into the retort from a boiler tank. This is more often true with the 
larger and more expensive outfits (Fig. (>()). Separate i-etorts 
which can lie used over a stove or out of doors are made, and often 
gasoline burners are sold with them as a necessary accessory. 
Charcoal funuices and a gas-fiame oil stove will give good results, 
and they are less expensive and more easily handled. Other 
cajuiei-s have a fir(»-box built in : when used out of doors the fii-e is 
protected and steam can be obtained more quickly (Fig. 6-4). 




Fic;. Go. — Pressure rookcr. 



ONE PERIOD PROCESSING 



91 




Fig. 66. — Commercial retorts where 



i,ii«-,l 



(Heinz Company.) 



Time-table for Processing by Steam 



Name of product 


Blanch 


Season- 
ing 


Exh 
No. 2 


aust 
No. 3 


Temper- 
ature, F. 


Pressure 

in 
pounds 


Time 
No. 2 
can, 
pints 


Asparagus 

Beans 


Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 


Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 


Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 


Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 


Degrees 

240 
240 
228 
228 
250 
240 
250 
250 
240 
250 
240 
228 
240 
235 
250 
250 


10 
10 

5 

5 
15 
10 
15 
15 
10 
15 
10 

5 
10 

8 
15 
15 


M inutes 
30 

45 


Baby beets 

Brussels spiouts. . 
Corn 


30 
30 
80 


Egg-plant 

Honiiny 


55 
50 


Okra 

Peas 


30 
45 


Potato, sweet .... 

Pumpkin 

Kraut 


70 
65 
20 


Spinach 

Squash 


35 
65 


Succotash 

Vegetable soup. . . 


60 
35 



Much time, labor, and fuel can be saved by sterilizing some of 
the heavy starchy products under steam pressure (see table above 
and Fig. 66). 



92 si'ccKssrrL cannim; and 1'i:i:si:i;\i\(; 

At sra level W.ilei- lioils ;if I'll' F. As the ;iltitllilr iiKToasrs 
the teiii|>ei-atiire at w hieh water Ixiils i,'-ra(liiall\- (|i'(»|)s. This tahh' 
Lrivt's a|t|ir(t.\iiiiatel.\ tlie teiii|iei-at iiics at which uat<'i- hoils in 
(lilVereiit altitudes. 

.".(10 feel alK.ve scjl Irvrl. li I 1 '^^ ]\ 

1.000 feet illiev,- sea |.\.l. li 1 ' F. 

2.000 feet iihcve sea level, -JOS" !••. 

.'i.OOO feet altove .sea level, ^Uii" l\ 

4.000 feet alM)ve sea level. 204° F. 

r..(»00 feet ahove seji level. 202° F. 

0,000 feel above se:i level, 201° V. 

7,000 feel ai.<i\.. sea li'Vi'l, l!t!t^ I-'. 

Since seieiitilie iii\csliL;atiiiiis lia\c not estalilislied accurate 
procedure for canniuji- in altitudes hi<ili euoujrh to reduce the 
temperature at which water boils nnicli below 212° F., it Is safer 
to use a steam-pressure canner when caunin<r 500 feet or hifjher 
above sea level. With the u.se of this type canner definite tem- 
peratures of 212 ' F. and above can be maintained. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by the term " processliifi: at a hijrh temperature "? 

2. For what kind of foods is this metliod particularly advantajjeous? Ex- 

plain your answer. 
.3. What two points nuist be watehed constantly while j)rocessin<r at a high 

tenijjeraturc? Explain your answer. 
4. How would you examine a steam canner to determine its value? 
.1. What part of the best canner will deteriorate with use? 
G. What is tlie purpose of the "pet cock"? Where is it located? IIow 

should this cock be while processing? Explain your answer. 

7. Describe liow to secure the j.ressure desired while using a steam eanner. 

8. When a definite time is desired for the processing, from what jioint in 

tliis process will you count the time? 

9. What precaution should be taken before opening tin- canner? Wliy is 

tliis necessary ? 
10. For what other method of canning may a steam canner be used? lIow 
can this be done? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See Chapter VIIT, page 122. 



CHAPTER VIII 
FRUIT JUICES 

Value. — The many ways of using fruit juices make them a 
most valuable product to have on hand throughout the year. 

Medicinal. — Fruit juices were used almost exclusively for 
medical purposes until recently. It is still a common practice in 
Europe for physicians to send their patients to the vineyards to 
drink the fresh juices as they come from the press. 

Daily Menu. — The juices of such fruits as grapes, currants, 
cherries, blackberries, raspberries, plums, and apples make whole • 
some and delicious beverages, as well as being a pleasant addition 
to the daily menu. Nothing is more refreshing on a hot day than 
a cool fruit-juice drink, which may be easily prepared from bot- 
tled juices. 

■ The dessert may be varied with very little expenditure of 
strength, time, and money by the use of different fruit juices. 
These may be used in making sherbets, ice-cream, puddings, 
sauces, and gelatine desserts. 

Social Functions. — The combination of fruit juices makes an 
attractive fruit punch to be served at any social function. 

GENERAL PREPARATION 

Much depends on the methods used in picking, assorting, and 
cleaning the fruit used in making fruit juices, syrups, and 
vinegar. 

Picking. — It is important to select only ripe fruit ; green fruit 
gives too muoh acidity to the finished product, while over-ripe or 
spoiled fruit imparts a disagreeable taste. Shallow trays or 
baskets are better adapted for picking, because they prevent 
crushing and bruising of the fruit. 

Assorting. — Even after carefid picking it is well to sort over 
the fruit on the trays, selecting only the sound fruit and discard- 
ing the imperfect pieces. 

93 



[)\ 



sr(( lissi'i I, ( ANMNc AM) I'll i-.si;i;\ 1 Nd 



Washing. — 'V\\r I'niil should lie wjislird carel'iilly Id free it 
fi'oiii ;iilli<r-iiiir <liist .111(1 diet, uliit-h ;ir'c iilways l"(»iiiid in iiim-c or 
li-ss aiiioiiiits oil l"i('slil\- picked i'l'iiits. This is hcst accomplished 
h\' phicinj; the Iriiit in a wire basket oi- (•ojaiidcr an<l allowing a 
spray of walci" 1o i-iiii ovci* the fruit. Often the fruit is bi'uised 
with the hands when washing,'- it in a ih'cp jiail of water, so this 
llietiiod shiMlhl not he used. |1 is ilil|H.|-l ;i nt to use utriisils which 
will not be alTectcd b\ iruil acids. 



K.X'i'li \C'I"I\(; .IIMfF.S 

Tiie amount of work involved is relatively far less when the 
juice is extracted in lar^c (|uaii1ities than in siiiall amounts, be- 
cause of the many laboi--savin^- devices that are ajiplicable if one 
is handling material in quantities. 




Fia. C7. — Hou.'fchold fruit-juice press. 

Cold Process. — This process consists of crushing and then 
pressing the fruit to facilitate the ovei-llow of juice. An ordinary 
cider mill may be used for handling the fruit in quantities, but if 
only a small ((uantity is to be taken care of. the fruit may be 
crushed Avith a ])otato masher, food chopjier, or fruit-juice press 
(Fig. 07). After crushing, the frnit is then pressed in a cloth by- 
twisting the two ends in opi)osite directions (Fig. 6S) until the 
greater part of the juice is extracted. 

A homemade press may be constructed as follows: 



FRUIT JUICES 



95 



Figure 69 shows a very efficient lever press which any farmer 
who is liandy with tools can make for himself from material which 
can be found on ahnost any farm at any time. The press consists 
of the following parts : Two upright posts {F) are set deeply and 
firmly in the ground, about twelve inches apart. It is well to 
attach cross-pieces (ordinarily known as "anchors" or "dead 
men") to the ends in the ground to prevent the posts from pulling 
out too easily. The lever (E) may be hung either between these 
I)()sts by means of a bolt (T) or to the side of a building, or a 
hole large enough to admit the lever may be notched in a tree and 





Fig. 68. — Cloth press being twisted. 

a lever fastened by a bolt. At the other end are two posts, between 
which the lever can be raised by means of block and tackle. The 
press itself consists of two timbers (Z)) on which rests the press 
bottom (B). On this bottom is set a press basket (A), consisting 
of two sides and two ends held together by means of rods (L), 
and so constructed that it can be easily taken apart and put 
together again. The sides and ends are bored full of small holes, 
from three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter, through which 
the juice is pressed. When the press is filled with fruit, the top, 
which fits inside the basket, and the cross blocks (7) are put on 



DC 



SICCKSSI I h ( ANMNc; AMJ I'KK.SLKN 1N(J 



aiul Iho lever caused to press down on tln-in. A hiri,'t' tub (C) 
is |»lace(l iiikUt tlu- press to eat<li the jiiifc I In- ro[>c running? 
ihidiiirli pulley lijnck (<1) Tast^'iicd to cross-piece (A') is used to 
lilt up the lexer of the press; wliilc pressure or wei'jiits oil the 
eiid uf the level- ( /v i \v(irk the i)ress. 

For ordiiiai-y purposes a |»ress basket three feet square and 
two feet biiiii. boiiliuL:- aiiprnxjmately two buslicls of iJ'rapes, will be 




t iii. Oy. — Construction of a homemade fruit press. 
Drawing made from illustration in U. S. Dept. ol Agriculture Farming Bulletin Xo. 7o8. 

I'ouiid to be a very convenient size. , It is perhaps well to state that 
the lonirer and heavier the lever, the jgrroiiter tlie pressure exerted 
on .the rriiil. When it is not convenient to make the lever very 
loni;, wei.uhts are placed or Iniuii- on the outer extremity in order to 
increase the ])ressure. With a little intrenuity any farmer can 
adapt this press to suit his iii(li\i(Iiial reipiirements (Pigs. 70 
and 71). 

Sometimes in pressing- Lnajx-s for bevera<res only the "free- 
run juice" is desired. This is the juice which is round between 
the skin and the pulp. Only sufficient ])ressui-e to burst the skin 
is necessary to secni-e this "fi-ee-run juice." This ^ives a product 
which is moi-e bi-illiant. cleai", fi'aiii'ant, and delicately flavored 
than the "total juice." 



FRUIT JUICES 



97 



Hot Process. — Juices of small fraits may be prepared with 
or without previous heating, but heating before pressing increases 
the yield of juice, intensifies the color, and develops a more dis- 

FiG. 70. 




Fig. 70. — Fruit press ready for use. 
Fig. 71.- — Fruit press in use. (Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

tinctive flavor than can be obtained by simply cold pressing. 
There are, however, a few exceptions. Juices flow more readily 
from fruit when heated than when cold. When the fruit juice is 
to be used for jelly-making the hot pressing is necessary, because 
heat is essential to develop the pectin, the jelly-making sub- 
stance found in fruit juices. 
7 



98 



SUCCKSSl'l I. CANMNC WD I'KI ;si:i;\ 1 N( I 



If tlir lurrirs (ir small I'niits arc to l)c iK-ati-il lirforc |irc.ssiii^, 
alxiiit imi'liall' llic i|iiaiitil\' sliciiild lie cnislird with a wooden 
j)()tato iiiasln'i- in the vi'sscl in u liifh it is to In- c-ooi<cd htdorc liciit- 
in'_^ I'lact- tiic utensil eijiitainiuL'- the I'l-nit over u second vessel 
coiitainiuL: hot water, so Ihat the Iruit iiia\- lie steamed instead of 
stewed until tendci-. A hetter color and tlavor will he retained it' 
the fiMiit is not allowed to come in direct contact with the fire. The 
temperature should not v:*) alio\c I'l'O \<\ '\'\\v less juicy i'ruits re- 
(|uire addition of water and a Ioultci- lieatin;x to extrai't the juice. 




Fio. 72. — A homemade fruit-juice filter. 

TTsual factory methods render the iiomaee, or cheese (the re- 
maining pul])), almost dry euoujjrh to hum. From an economical 
standpoint, s(j[ucezing the pulp is considered a good practice, ex- 
cept -where the frec-nm juice alone is desired. When the juice 
is extracted it may hv filtered l)y allowing it to drip througli a 
flannel or felt cloth. Both the ''free-run juice" and "total 
juice" should bo carefully .strained before bottling. After the 
juice has dripped through this filter, allow it to stand whil(> the 
bottles are being sterilized, so that the suspended substances 



FRUIT JUICES 



99 



present wall drop to the bottom and render the juice less tnrbid. 
Now the clear juice may be poured off without distur])ing the 
sediment. The juice which has been strained should be pro- 
tected from the dust. This can easily be done if a strainer such as 
shown in figure 72 is used. 

PACKING 

Reheating the Juice. — Some concentrated juices are packed 
cold, but thin juices will not keep unless heated to a temperature 
of 170° to 190° Fahrenheit. The temperature should never be 
allowed to go above 200° Fahrenheit. Fruit juices should never 
boil, because boiling injures the color and flavor. If a ther- 
mometer is not available to regulate the temperature, heat the 
juice in a double boiler and allow it to steam or simmer for five 
minutes. 




Fig. 73. — Bottling fruit juice. 

Bottling. — The preparation of fruit juices for bottling in the 
proper season requires little time and skill (Fig. 73). The juice 
should be poured inunediately into hot sterilized bottles, allowing 
about one inch at the top for the expansion when the juice in 
the bottles is heated. If the juice is strained cold into the bottles, 
more space at the top should be allowed for expansion than when 
juice is packed hot. When juices are bottled for beverages, the 
addition of a small amount of sugar will produce a finer flavor. 



1(10 srccKssKiL cANMNc; AM) I'l: I >i;i;\ I .\( ; 

TIk' prtipoi'tiim varies, hut a lair allnu aricc is one ciiiil'iil uf 
siiLrar to kik- ^'alloii ot' juii-c. No siiLfar shniild he addi-d td the 
juice wlieu it is Ixittlrd if it is to lie used I'oi- jells -Miakiiij; later. 
'I'liis uu'thod of allowiuix the bottled juiee to staud uudisturhcd 
insures the u'ettiii^'' rid of tartarii- aeid ei-yslals iu ^rrape jelly 
whieh are so ol)jeetional)le. Ou staudiuir, the tartaric acid crys- 
tallizes and the crystals settle. When the juice is to be used for 
jellx-makiui;- it shouhl be poiii'ed olV earerully. so as not to dis- 
turli the setlinuMit whicii coiilaius thes<' crystals. 

Corking. — Soak new coi-ks for one-half hour in warm soda 
water (.one leaspoonrnl of soda to nne (piart nl' water), and tlieii 
di]) them into i)oilin,u- water iiniuediately before usiuir. The corks 
should be placed loosely in the bottle l)efore pasteuriziuir. Some- 
times a small circle of cloth is tied over the cork duriuL-^ i)as- 
teurization to keep it from blowing- out. This is better than 
using a patented device. Neither of these will ])e necessary if 
sufficient space is allowed at the top of the bottle when lilliui_' with 
juice and the water-bath is kei>t at the proper temperature. If 
the juice is to be tested with a thermometer in the containei-s, the 
sterilized corks may be floated on the water in the wash-ltoiler 
until the pasteurization point is reached. 

Pasteurizing is used here in place of sterilizing because of the 
h)w temperature used in heating fi-uit juices. 

An ordinary wash-boiler makes a simple homemade pasteurizer 
after fitted with a false bottom. This false bottom prevents 
the bottles from coming in direct contact with the bottom of 
the vessel. A free circulation of water around all sides of the 
bottles will keep them from breaking. The vessel should be 
filled with water to within two inches of the top of the bottles. 
Heat the water slowly and allow it to sinnner for twenty to 
thirty minutes, the length of time to depend u])on the size of 
the containei's used and the kind of juice being ])asteurized. 
Testing the temperature of juice in the bottles with a thermometer 
gives greater accuracy. If this test is used, allow the cleansed 
corks to float on the water in the boiler until the pasteurization 
point is reached. Heat the juice to 140' to I'lO' Fahrenheit and 
!hold this temperature for thirty or forty minutes, cork the bot- 
tles, and cool to temperature of 70= to 75° Fahrenheit before 
removing the containers from the water-bath. 



FRUIT JUICES 



101 



Sealing, — Immediately after tlie pasteiiriziiifr the sterilized 
corks should be driven tig-htly into the bottles to seal them 
securely. Place the neck of the bottle on the edge of the table 
and with a sharp knife cnt the corks off even with the tops of 
the bottles and seal air-tight with melted paraffin or wax (Fig. 
74). After cutting the cork, turn the bottle upside down and 
dip one inch of the neck into the melted wax, turning the bottle 
as it is lifted out to give a smooth coating to the sealing wax. 




Fig. 74. — Making sealing wax. 



Homemade Sealing Wax. — ]\Ielt together equal parts of 
shoemaker's wax and resin. This should be done in a pan over 
hot water to prevent scorching and to make it a pretty amber 
color. Dip the corked bottles into it after it has melted. 
Various colors may be obtained by adding the following in given 
proportions to the melted wax. To each three pounds of resin 
used add : 

For red color, ^4 ounce Chinese vermilion. 
For black color, .3 ounces lampblack. 
For green color, 5 ounces chrome green. 
For yellow color, 5 ounces chrome yellow, 1 ounce shellac. 
For a white sealing wax, melt together 2 pounds white resin, 1 ounce 
white varnieh, 1 pound beeswax, and 14 bunce zinc white. 



KC' 



srcCKSSlTL ('.\NMN(; AND I'llKSKl'A I N( ! 



Capping. — It" .1 siTrw cap is to ln' placid nn tlir hnltji' nvcr 
llic cnrk, tlif scaling' wax slioiilil he (tiiiittrd ( Fi<r. 7.")). Wlini a 
cniu II ca]) is used (lie l)()ttlt's of fruit jiiicf ai-f usually |)ast(Miri/.('(l 
(i|Hii and llic cap criiiipcd (ni iiy a liarid iiiacliiiic iiiiiuediately 
at'li'i- the pastriiri/.in;^' ( l''i;r. Tli). 




Fio. 75. — Screw-cap bottlo. 




Fir,. 70 — A hand bottle Bcaling machine. (En- 
torprise Manufacturing Company, Philadel- 
phia.) 



Labelling. — Tlio appearance of the ))ackaire depends a great 
(leal on the label. Before labelliiitr, wash and poli.sh each bottle. 
Place the label midway between the seams of tlie bottle and oue- 
fourlli inch from the lo\ver edge. On eacli label slioidd appear 
name of product, net weight .stated in pounds and ounces, and 
the name and address of |)a('ker. P'resh clean lal)els should be 
placed on commercial bottles just before they are packed for 
delivery. 



FRUIT JUICES 103 

Storing. — All bottled fruit juices should be stored in a cool, 
dark, dry place. If left in a bright light tihe color will fade and 
the juice will be less attractive. Unfermented juices properly 
made and bottled will keep indefinitely if not exposed to the air 
or to infection from mold germs. When a bottle is once opened 
the contents, like canned goods, should be used as soon as possible. 
The bottles or jars should be small enough so that the contents 
may be used at once, and not allowed to stand until they spoil. 

SPECIAL PRODUCTS 

Cider. — Cider making requires a comparatively inexpensive 
equipment and involves only a small amount of labor. Cider 
is not considered a profitable commercial product, because it is 
bulky and perishable. By following the methods given for 
bottling other fruit juices, fresh cider may be easily kept through 
the year. Usually cider is sterilized at too high a temperature, 
which destroys the delicate flavor of the fresh juice and renders 
it unappetizing. The length of time cider may be kept open 
before it ferments sufficiently to be considered as becoming 
"hard" or sour varies with temperature conditions and also de- 
pends on the presence of fennenting agents. 

Concentrated Cider or Apple Syrup. — The sugar percentage 
is low in fresh cider, and it contains so much water that the 
market for it is limited. Methods of reducing its bulk and chang- 
ing it into an article which will keep throughout the year have 
been devised. Attention has often been called to the fact that 
when ordinary cider freezes part of the water separates and 
freezes, leaving unfrozen a concentrated cider having natural 
cider flavor and a reduced water content, a higher percentage of 
sugar and other solids. Experiments in boiling down fresh cider 
to secure a concentrated syrup gave a product with a distinctly 
acid flavor, due to an excess of acid known technically as malic 
or apple acid. The problem resolved itself into removing the 
excess of acid, and this was finally accomplished by adding car- 
bonate or milk of lime to the cider, which precipitates the acid 
and, after settling or filtering and boiling, yields a staple and at- 
tractive table syrup. This syrup has a fine flavor and will keep 



104 si-rci:ssi'i I. tanmnc and 1'i:i;si;u\ in(j 

iiulctiiiitcly in si'alid cdiitaiiRM-s like s\ i-iij) iiuulf ri-(»iii cane or 
sorLrliiini. Small ijiiaiit il ic.s for lnuiu- use can Iju madu \vith 
ordinary uti'iisils. 

Method for Making Apple Syrup. — Tlif avcrau'^o farm liouse- 
wifc who is provided with a lar^'c pirserviii^ kettle can easily 
make several (jiiarts of ai)])le syrup in her own kitchen. Althouf^'h 
she nuiy not find that she can sell her product profitably, she at 
least will find the method valuable in converting the windfalls 
of her own farm into a delicate and i)leasant syrup for the use 
of her family. This i)i-oduct is a palatable and valualtle food. 

Method.'^ — To make one gallon of apple syrup, stir into 
seven gallons of apple cider five ounces of powdered calcium 
carbonate (carbonate of lime), which is a low-priced chemical, 
readily obtainable from a local dnig store in the fonn of pre- 
cipitated chalk or powdered marble-dust. Heat the cider and 
allow it to boil for a few minutes. As the cider will foam 
slightly, it is necessary to use a vessel at least one-third larger 
than the volume of cider. Pour the cider, after boiling, into 
vessels, preferably half-gallon preserving jars, which permit the 
condition of the liquid to be observed. Allow the liquid to 
settle until perfectly clear. This will take several hours or over 
night. After the liquid is perfectly clear and shows a distinct 
sediment at the bottom, pour off the clear portion into the 
preserving kettle, being careful not to pour off any of the 
sediment. Add to the clear liquid a level teaspoonfiil of the 
carbonate of lime and again stir thoroughly. The process is 
completed by boiling down the clear li<iuid. Iimsmuch as the 
liquid when boiling down foams more than on the first heating, 
the kettle should be only one-third full when boiling commences. 
Where a large kettle is not obtainable, the li(iuid will have to 
be boiled down in batches. Allow tlie liquid to boil rajiidly. If 
the housewife has a thermometer, she should allow the liciuid to 
boil until it reaches 220° Fahrenheit. "Where no thermometer 
is at hand, boil the liquid until it reaches about one-seventh of 
the original volume, or until a small portion when cooled rapidly 

' From Year Book >Scparatc 639, U. S. l^opartniont of Aj^riculture. 



FRUIT JUICES 105 

and poured from a spoon shows about the same consistency as 
maple syrup. The aim is to make a thin syrup rather than one 
that will candy. 

When the syrup has reached this point, pour it off into the 
jars and let it stand where it will cool very slowly. Slow cooling 
is very important in making the syrup clear, as it allows all 
sediment and added substances to settle out completely. A con- 
venient way of bringing about this slow cooling is to put the 
vessels into a tireless cooker or to put the jars containing the 
syrup in a wa^-boiler, surround them with hot water, and 
allow the whole to cool. When the syrup has cooled to room 
temperature there will be found a white sediment, which is known 
to chemists as malate of lime, a harailess compound of the lime 
and the acid of the apples. This is identical with the product 
known as maple sand, which occurs naturally when maple sap 
is boiled down into syrup. When the settling has been com- 
pleted, carefully pour off the clear portion of the syrup into a 
kettle, heat nearly to boiling, and pour hot into sterilized jars, 
which should be at once sealed. 

Another method would be to transfer the boiling syrup from 
the preserving kettle into the sterilized bottles and seal imme- 
diately. The sediment Avhich appears at the bottom in no way 
affects the syrup. When ready to serve, simply pour off the 
clear portion, leaving the sediment, which is not easily disturbed, 
at the bottom. The syrup might also be bottled w^hile cold, 
processed, and sealed as for fruit juices. The syrup wall be a 
clear, ruby-colored product, possibly varying from a deep-ruby 
red to lighter shades, according to the character of apples used 
in making the cider. This syrup is similar in consistency to 
maple syrup, and can be used like any other table syrup. If 
made in accordance with these directions it will have a delicate 
and novel flavor, somewhat similar to that of the sugar which 
forms when apples are baked. It will be found that children 
will enjoy it on bread and butter, and that it will afford a new 
and useful flavoring adjunct or sauce for puddings or other 
desserts. 



lOG 



SUC'CKSSKi;i> CANN1N(; AM) I'ltKSKKX I NC 



Muscadine Grape Syrup. — TIh- pniccss of inakiiij^ .Muscadiin' 
• ■•ra|)t' s\rup is vt-i'v siiiiplc, and witli pntp<T care an MKJxperi- 
I'lKH'd (ii)i'nit(»r fan sucfoed. Since llic iiiaUiii<; ol" <rrape syrup is 
very similar to the iiictliods used in iiiai<in;r ai>|)le syrup, it is 
unneeessary to oullinc tln' procrdurc in detail. 

Varieties. — The varieties havinjr llie lii<_diest natural .snjrar 
and lowest natural acid content usuall\- make the most delicious 
and hiLfhrst ([iiality synip and also yield llic most synip \u-v. 
iraUon of f!vsh .juice. The Scup|)ernonu-. Thomas, li\U)la, Mish. 
and olher siniilai' vai'ietii's of hi^di (pudity make the best syrups. 
The .lames makes a syrup of fair (lualily, while the Flowers and 
Kdeii varieties nudce .syrups which, relatively speakincr, would be 
eallcd acid and rough. 

Pressing. — Cleanse the various parts of the press; scald it 
so that it will swell and will not leak. So soon as each pressin<r is 
completed it is important to remove all i)onuice from the press 
and to wash with clean water all the parts that have come in 
contact with the juice. This will prevent fermentation and 
sourini? at the press and the giving of foreign flavors to later 
lots of juice. 

Crush the grapes and then press them cold. The free-run 
or first juice that comes from the press is more desirable for 
syrup juaking than that which is secured under pressure. This 
is i)rincipally due to the fact that the free-run juice is higher 
in sugar content and lower in acid content than the pressed 
juice. ^Vhen i)ressure is ai)plied the juice flows freely at first 
and then at a gradually slower and slower rate for many houi*s. 
The pomace should never be allowed to stand in the pi'ess longer 
than five or six hours. For many reasons it has been found 
desirable to i)ress during the day, cook the juice the fii'st time in 
the late afternoon or evening, allow it to stand in the precipitating 
jars over night, and boil it down to a syruj) the next morning. 
A bushel of grapes will \iel(l, when cold i)ressed, from two and 
a (juarter to four gallons of fresh juice, depending upon the 
variety. IMost varieties yield at least three gallons. On this 
basis, condensing the juice to one-ninth of its volume, which has 



FRUIT JUICES 



107 



been found to ^ive a syrup of satisfying consistency, one bushel 
of grapes, cold pressed, should yield one and one-third quarts 
of syrup. Heated grapes yield more juice than cold-pressed 
grai)es, but make a syrup of inferior quality. 

Heating. — Heat the juice and strain it. To every six quarts 
of fresh Muscadine juice stir in two ounces of powdered calcium 
carbonate (carbonate of lime) to remove the acids. Boil for 
six or eight minutes as with apple syrup, and pour hot into 
sterilized glass jars or pitchers. Allow the liquid to stand over 
night. Pour off the clear portion into a cooking vessel, being 




Fig. 77. — Utensils used iu making Muscadine sjTup. 

culture.) 



(Courtesy V. S. Dl, _., .A Agri- 



eareful not to pour off any of the sediment. Add one-sixth 
of a level teaspoonful of calcium carbonate for each six quarts 
of fresh grape juice which it represents. 

Complete the process by boiling down the clear liquid, being 
careful to keep the caramel forming on the inside of the pan 
wiped off with a wet cloth so that scorched caramel will not fall 
into the syrup and cause it to have a burned flavor. Boil the 
liquid, being careful not to allow it to bum when it is nearly 



108 SUCOKSSFUL C.\.\N1Nl; AM) l'i:KSKR\ 1N(; 

done. Skim diii-iiiL' tlit- coukiiij^' process and continue tiic co(jking 
as lor apple syrup. 

Cooling. — Wlun the syrup lias reached the pro])er thickness, 
pour it oil" into the jars, cover, and ]tlace them in a hot-water 
bath or in a tireless cooker where they will cool very slowly. 
Slow coolinLT is important in order to obtain a clear syrup. 

When the syrup has cooled to room temperature it can be 
bottled. 

Bottling. — Pour ofT the clear syrup, leaving' behind the sedi- 
ment, which is not easily disturbed. Bottle, sterilize, and seal at 
once (Fig. 77). 

Fruit Syrups, — Fruit syrups which are left over from can- 
ninj^ either small or large fruits should be bottled, pasteurized, 
sealed, and stored away to be used for flavoring or making 
beverages. A delicious drink is made by adding two or three 
teaspoonfuls of fruit syrup and the juice of one-half lemon to a 
glass of cold water. They may also be used for llavoring ice- 
creams, sherbets, and other desserts. 

Such fruits as peaches, strawberries, and pineapples give 
more satisfactoiy results when made into syrups before bottling. 
Sugar helps to develop the flavor of thpse fruits. Sauces for 
sundaes and for flavoring are often made from red cherries, 
pliuns, currants, red and black rasj)berrics, strawberries, black- 
berries, apricots, peaches, rhui>arh, ])ineapples. and lemons. A 
good i)roi)ortion to use for berries and small fruits is two cup- 
fuls sugar to eac/h quart of juice. 

For each quart <rrated fresli jiiiicaiipli' allow two pounds su^mf to one 
(■uj)ful of watiT. 

F^or each pt)und aprie-ots, frt'sh fruit, allow one jiound su^^ar to one pint 
of water. 

For each two pounds peaches, fresh fruit, allow one jiound suirar to 
one cupful of water. 

F^or eacli (juart rhuharh juice allow two pounds suirar. 

For each cui)ful lemon juice, one tahlespoonful of •grated rind, allow one 
pound of suf:^ar to one cujiful of water. 

General Method of Preparing Vinegar. — Cider vinegar is fre- 
quently made in the country home, but often when this jiroduct 



FRUIT JUICES 109 

is put Oil the market it is found to rail short in one i'e([uire- 
iiieiit or another. The need of a careful study of this process 
is necessary. The expense attached to vinegrar production is 
small, since Nature does most of the work. Cider vineg^ar can 
be utilized in the home or sold as one of the by-products that in- 
crease the income of the farm. 

MAKING CIDER VINEGAR AT HOME ' 

Why Study Was Needed. — The making of cider vinegar is a 
familiar cperation in almost every farm home (Fig. 78). The 
final product is a necessity on every table, t/he small apples 
from which it is usually made are of practically no value for 
other purposes, the labor and expense of picking them up and 
pressing them are slight, and from the time the cider is in the 
barrel Nature does the work. Thus the process appears a simple 
one, easy to start, and self-operated to its termination in a salable 
commodity; so that the work-burdened farmer, with several 
barrels of cider in his cellar, may, in his few moments of leisure, 
think with pleasure of this farm operation which will bring him 
profit without further outlay of strength or money. 

Yet vinegar is a food product and, as such, has come under 
the eye of state law, which says that to be legally salable the 
finished goods must meet certain requirements. Cider vinegar 
must contain 4.5 per cent of acetic acid and 2 per cent of cider 
vinegar solids before it can be lawfully sold, and frequently 
farmers who have made vinegar from pure apple juice only, and 
who have stored this under what they believe to be proper con- 
ditions for the proper length of time, find that their product 
falls short in one requirement or the other. Thus, without 
fraudulent intent or attempt at adulteration or dilution, the 
homemade vinegar falls under suspicion. Complaints of this 
condition reached the New York station in considerable number 
some years ago, and in an effort to find the cause or causes of the 
difficulty an extensive investigation of the subject has been made. 

'These directions are quoted from N. Y. State Agricultural Experiment 
Station Bulletin No. 258, written by F. H. Hall. 



110 SUCCESSFLL CANMNC; AM) IM:i:SI:k\ 1 N( ; 

('idci- li;i.s l)(.Tii |)i'c.ssr(l (liii-iii;^ (lill'crent years uiitl I'roiii dilTcrfiit 
varieties ol' apples, and lias been stored under varied conditions, 
with and without additions of yeast, "niotlier" or additional 
malic (ap|)le) acid. In all. thirty-six experiments have been 
earried throujrh periods of time varyinj^ from forty-four months 
to seven years. Eaeh sample of cider was analyzed monthly for 
ten months and at two-month or three-month intervals after that 
time, attention being: paid to seven constituents in most of the 
analyses; so that a great amount of data has been collected, of 
much chemical interest and i)ractical value. 

Simple Yet Complex. — As seen by the farmer, vinegar mak- 
ing is a simi)le process; to the chemist, though less intricate than 
many other chemical transfoi'mations, it is comj)lex; while to the 
biologist the various steps in tiic change of sugar in the fresh 
apple .iuiee to the acetic acid of vinegar are manifestations of 
very eomi)lex life activities of many si)ecies of organisms, divided 
into two great groups, yeasts and bacteria, each group perform- 
ing a si)ccific function in the change. There may also come into 
action, under certain unfavoral)le conditions, other bacteria which 
hinder the useful transformations, or which destroy the prod- 
ucts desired and thus lower the quality of the vinegar. This 
interplay of living organisms, sometimes for good, sometimes for 
ill, has not been studied in all its details, and has been consid- 
ered, in this investigation, only as results were produced, the 
chemical transfoi-mations alone ])eing considered. 

Chemistry of Vinegar Making. — In a general way these 
transformations are two: Sugar, the ordinary cane-sugar and 
other forms known as invert sugars (dextro.se and krvulose). in 
the sweet cider, is fii'st changed into alcohol throuudi the fermen- 
tative action of one grouj) of organisms; then the alcohol, by the 
action of a second grouj) of organisms, is changed to acetic acid. 
Chemically considered, each molecule of sugar consists of six 
atoms of carbon, twelve atoms of hydrogen, and six atoms of 
oxygen. When this molecule of sugar is acted upon by the proper 
ferments, it passes tlirougli a series of chemical changes which 
may be said to result, finally, in splitting it up into two molecules 
of alcohol, each containing two atoms of carbon, six of hydro- 



FRUIT JUICES 111 

gen, and one of oxygen, and two molecules of carbon dioxide gas, 
each containing one atom of carbon and two of oxygen. This 
may be expressed in the form of an ecjuation : 

Sugar Alcohol Carbon dioxide 

CjHiaOs = 2C2H6O + 2CO2 

Theoretically, we should be able to get from 100 parts of 
sugar by weight about 51 parts of alcohol and 49 parts of carbon 
dioxide ; but because of evaporation and certain minor chemical 
changes we can get in practice only about 45 to 47 parts of alco- 
hol or less. 

After th© alcohol is formed, the organisms which act upon 
it begin the transformation to acetic acid. In this process oxy- 
gen is taken from the air. The result may be similarly repre- 
sented by an equation : 

Alcohol Oxygen Acetic acid Water 

C6H12O + Oj = C2H4O2 -I- H2O 

Theoretically, again, we should obtain from 100 parts of 
alcohol about 130 parts of acetic acid, but we usually get less 
than 120 parts. So, starting with 100 parts of sugar in the 
apj)le juice, we may get under favorable conditions from 50 to 
55 parts of acetic acid ; therefore to have vinegar w' ith 4.5 per 
cent of acetic acid we must have juice containing not less than 
8.5 per cent of sugar. 

Sugar in Apples. — This percentage, however, is found in 
practically^ all ripe, sound apples, although in a record of about 
100 analyses of 80 varieties of American-grown apples, made at 
N. Y. station, in Washington, D. C, in Pennsylvania, and in Vir- 
ginia, five samples, of as man^^ different varieties, were too low 
in sugar to produce vinegar of the required acidity. The sugar 
in apples reaches its maximum in ripe fruit, being low both in 
those that are green and those that are over-ripe. It averaged, in 
the apples used in the tests at N. Y. station, ISy^ per cent, and 
varied less than 2 per cent either above or below the average. 
A somewhat surprising fact to those not familiar with the chem- 
istry of the subject is that "sweet" apples do not owe their 
sweetness to their large percentage of sugar, but to the small 



112 succESsriL CANNINC AM) iM:i:si;i:\ I .\( ; 

uiiiouiit of iiialif iicid tlifv coiilaiii. l<>r cxariiiilc. tlir saiii|ili' of 
Ki'd Ast I acliaii .juict- i-oiitairii'il ln.Ki per criil of su<;ar and 1.1.") 
pel- ciiit of malic acid; wldic Tdliiiaii Swcd and Swcct B()iit,'h 
I'ltiitaiii aliout the same aiiittiiiit of sii^rai'. I»iit onl\- n.ld to 0.20 
per cent of malic acid. 

Alcoholic Fermentation. — StaI•tiIlL^ llicn, witli juice conlain- 
iiiLT suflicii'nt suirar, wliat arc the conditions wliicli will licst 
promote the clianiics to alcohol and to vinc^^ar and prevent loss? 
Tiic su,uar must lirst he acted upon hy the enzymes, or ferments, 
which are produced by yeast | slants. The yeast jrerms arc usu- 
al I \- jire.sent everywhere, so that they pass fi-om the surface of 
the api)les into the juice as it is pressed out, or fall into the 
cidei- from the air. It has sometimes been held unwise to wash 
apples before pressing them, for fear of carrying away the neces- 
sary yeast germs ; but the apples used in all the station tests 
were washed without ai)parent interference with alcoholic fer- 
mentation. If apples have become dirty it is certainly best to 
wash them, as otherwise there is danger of introducing bacteria 
that interfere with proper fermentation. In ordinary cellar 
temperature, most of the sugar is changed into alcohol in five or 
six months, the change being slow^ during the first month, but 
quite rapid during the second, third, and fourth months. The 
process may be greatly hastened by storing in rooms warmer 
than cellars usually are during the fall and winter months. By 
placing bottles of vinegar in rooms of different temperature, 
running from 55° to 85° Farhenheit it Avas found that at 55° 
only 214 per cent of alcohol was formed in three months; at 60° 
and 65° Fahrenheit, more than iy^ per cent; and at 70° and 
85° Fahrenheit, about 6Y2 P^i" cent was formed in the same 
time. At higher temperatures than this, evaporation of the 
alcohol would be liable to cause loss. 

The addition of yeast also hastens alcohol fonuation, so tliat 
at a temperature of 55° Fahrenheit cider with yeast added gave 
6 14 per cent of alcohol, and at 70° Fahrenheit, with yeast, 7^4 
per cent, both in one month. The use of any form of commercial 
yeast, if sufficiently fresh, will probably be found to give good 
results. 



FRUIT JUICES 113 

Acetic Fermentation. — After the yeast fermentation has been 
completed the acetic-acid forming bacteria begin to attack the 
alcohol and produce acetic acid. This process is ordinarily very 
slow for abont three months after the sugar has all been changed 
to alcohol (that is, during the eighth, ninth, and tenth months 
of cellar storage), but advances rapidly from the tenth to the 
fourteenth month and is practically completed in two years. 
This process also moves more rapidly, when once well started, at 
higher temperatures ; but differences of temperature appear to 
have little effect during the three months after the sugar has 
disappeared. Beginning with the tenth month of storage, how- 
over, and up to the end of two and one-half years, nearly twice 
as great a percentage of acetic acid was produced where the 
temperature varied from 50° to 90° Fahrenheit as where it was 
from 45° to 65° Fahrenheit. The percentage of acid formed at 
lower temperatures never became as great as at higher tempera- 
tures, though part of the apparent increase in the warm room 
was due to evaporation of the water. The best results were 
secured at temperatures of 65° to 70° Fahrenheit. 

It is the ordinary practice to add vinegar, especially vine- 
gar containing "mother," to the barrels in which vinegar is 
making; and the investigation proved the practice a most excel- 
lent one, as the acetic fermentation was more rapid and more 
complete in every case where this form of inoculation or "seed- 
ing" was used. This addition of "mother" is comparable to 
the addition of a "starter" in souring milk, for the "mother" 
is produced by the growth of the acetic bacteria in the presence 
of air and contains large numbers of these bacteria. 

It appears to be of advantage in some cases to draw off the 
clear portion of the cider after alcoholic fermentation has been 
completed, leaving the dregs; and to continue the process in 
new, clean barrels or to wash out the settlings and return the 
clear liquid to the barrels. This proved of considerable advan- 
tage in the case of vinegars stored at low temperatures, but of 
less utility when the vinegar was stored at higher temperatures 
where the acetic fennentation proceeded rapidly. Possibly with 
cider made from uncleaned apples and carelessly strained juice 
8 



Ill SL'CCKSSKll- CANMNf; AM) I'KIISKHX I N( ; 

tllf results a 1 1 til IT I Ills lilii' W nil hi tir iiioif st cikiiij,' ; l'n|- tllr liiiliilitv 
ti> coiitaiiiiiiat inn with iiii(|csii-al)lt' l'^i-iiis woiilij l»r Lrrcalcr in 
Sllfll casrs. 

Loss of Acetic Acid. — In holli alcnlidlii- frniiriital ion ami 
ai't'tie fcniii'iiiatidM tlic air slmuM li:i\r I'l'fc access, es|ieciall>' in 
the latti'i'; for, as can lie si'cii liy the ci|iiati()ii j.MVeii to explain 
the pcdeess. (ixyireii iiiiist he aihled to alcohol to make the aeeticr 
acid, and this must come larirelv I'rom the air. On this at-eowMl 
the liarrels should not he lilled mori' than t wo-t hii-ds oi- three- 
foui'tlis full with the apple juice or with tlu' "hai'd" cidei-. l>ut 
when the acetic fermentation lias ceased 1o he active and llie 
amount of aeelic acid is safely above P^. jicr cent the vincL'ar 
sliould he di'awii from the liarrds and strairnMl, the hari'els 
cleansed, the \iiieucar I'eturned, lilliie_: the liai-rels full, and the 
bung driven in tiyht. 

I'nless tihis is done, desti'uetive ft'rmentation may he^^in and 
the acetic acid decrease instead of inereasin<r. In .several experi- 
ments where the vineg:ar was held in loosely stoppered casks or 
l)ottles it lost all or neaidy all its acid, and in some cases actually 
liecame alkaline in reaction. This destructive fermentation may 
])e due to new species of bacteria inti'odueed, or even in some 
eases to the same acetic acid-forming sjiecies which, when the 
alcohol is exhausted, attack the acetic acid itself. 

As showing how complex may be the processes passing in 
vinegar, the case may be cited of four one-quart bottles of the 
same juice stored under the same general conditions. At the 
end of five years bottles A and B contained 5.74 and 5.4-i per 
cent, respectively, of acetic acid, bottle C 2.10 per cent, and 
bottle I) gave an alkaline reaction. Bottles A and C contained 
nearly thi-ee times and bottle B two and one-half times as much 
solids as bottle D. 

Malic Acid. — The acid of fresh apple juice is not the acid of 
vinegar, but a fixed acid called malic acid. This has certain 
chemical (characteristics which make it (|uite easily recognizable; 
and so its presence in vinegai- has been considered an index to 
determine whether the vinegar was or was not trul.\" vinegar from 
apples. But these investigations have proved that this acid dis- 



FRUIT JUICP]S 115 

appears quite rapidly from vinegar, so that in twenty-four 
months it had shrunk from an average of 0.55 per cent to 0.02 
per cent; while in some older vinegars it had disappeared en- 
tirely. The relation of malic acid to cider vinegar is being further 
studied. 

Legal Standard. — The legal standard of the state for acid, 4l^ 
per cent of acetic acid, has been upheld fully by these results; 
for apple juice from good ripe apples, properly managed in 
fermentation, should and does easily give 4i/2 per cent of acetic 
acid within two years at cellar temperatures and in less time 
at higher temperatures. 

Concerning solids, the wisdom of the standard is not quite so 
clear. In several experiments made in this investigation, vine- 
gars made from pure apple juice and well above the limit in acid 
contain less than two per cent of solids. 

Conditions Producing Poor Vinegar. — Among the conditions 
which may produce vinegar below standard are these : ( 1 ) The 
juice may be poor to start with because made from varieties of 
apples low in sugar, from green apples or from over-ripe or de- 
caj^ed apples; or the juice may be watered either directly or by 
watering the pomace and pressing a second time. (2) The fer- 
mentation processes may be delayed or disturbed by using dirty 
fruit or unclean barrels, thus affording entrance to undesirable 
organisms and causing the wrong kind of fermentation ; the tem- 
perature may be too low to insure the necessary activity of favor- 
able organisms; or air may be excluded by filling the barrels 
too full or putting the bung in too tight so that the bacteria can- 
not live and work. (3) The acetic acid may disappear after its 
formation, destructive fermentation being encouraged by leaving 
the bung-hole of the barrel open or the barrel only partially full. 

To Make Good Vinegar. — Briefly summarized, the method to 
be employed for the manufacture of good vinegar at home, with- 
out the use of generators, is this : Use sound, ripe apples, picked 
or picked up before they have become dirty, if possible, other- 
wise washed. Observe the ordinary precautions to secure clean- 
liness in grinding and pressing, and discard all juice from second 
pressings. If possible, let the juice stand in some large recep- 



116 



SUCCKSSI ML ( ANMNC AND I'KKSKKVI NC 



t.H'lr U>r a t'fU days \n srttlr. tln'n di-aw oil' llir clcac poilioii into 
wcll-clt'ancd harnis wliiili have 1»citi ti<ati-d with steam or Itoil- 
iiij; water, lillini; tlu'iii only two-thirds or three- fourths lull. 
Leave the buiip out, l)Ut put in a loose i)lut; of cotton to deereas*; 
evaporation and to prevent the entrance of dirt. If these barrels 
are stonnl in ordinary cellars, where the tein[)erature does not po 
below ")() or 45 ' Fahrenheit, the alcoholic fermentation will be 
complete in about six mouths; but by having the storage r(Kjm 
at a temperature of 63° or 70° the time can be considerably 
shortened, and the addition of compressed yeast or its e(|uivalent 
at the I'ate of one eak(j to five gallons of juiee may reduce the 
time to three months or less. Use a little water to thoroughly 
disintegrate the yeast cake before adding it to the juice. The tem- 
perature should not go above 70' for any length of time, to avoid 
loss of the alcohol by evaporation. 



ctcSj^ 








Ki^-—- 



Fig 78 — Making vinegar on the farm 

After the sugar has all disappeared from the juice (that is. 
when the cider has entirely ceased "working" as revealed by 
the absence of gas bubbles), draw off the clear portion of the 
cider, rinse out the barrel, replace the liquid and add two to four 
quarts of good vinegar containing some "mother," and place at 
a temperature of 65° to 75° Fahrenheit. The acetic fermenta- 



FRUIT JUICES 117 

tion may be complete in three months or may take eighteen 
months, according to the conditions under which it is carried on ; 
or if stored in cool cellars may take two years or more. If the 
alcoholic fermentation be carried on in the cool cellar and the 
barrel be then taken to a warmer place, as outdoors during the 
summer, the time of vinegar formation may be reduced from 
that given above to fifteen or eighteen months. Where the alco- 
holic fermentation is hastened by warm temperature storage and 
tlie use of yeast and the acetic fermentation favored by warmth 
and a good vinegar "start," it is possible to produce good 
merchantable vinegar in casks in six or twelve months. 

When the acetic fermentation has gone far enough to produce 
4.5 to 5 per cent of acetic acid, the barrels should be made as full 
as possible and tightly corked in order to prevent destructive 
changes and consequent deterioration of the vinegar. 

RECIPES 

Bottling Juice of Grape Fruit. ^ — Bring the grape-fruit juice 
to the boiling-point in a porcelain-lined or enamelled kettle, pour 
it while still liot into sterilized bottles, and seal hermetically. 
The juice when so handled will keep indefinitely, and provides a 
base for " grapef ruitade " or other acid beverages having the 
characteristic acid, somewhat bitter, flavor of the fruit. Experi- 
ments show, however, that it is highly important that the bottle 
be completely filled, so that no layer of air will be left between 
the top of the juice and the cork or seal. When air in any amount 
comes in contact with the top of the sterilized juice it will cause 
the juice to change its color. In handling the juice it is particu- 
larly important that it be kept from coming into contact with 
iron or other metals easily acted upon by fruit acids. 

The investigators found also that it was possible to freeze the 
grape-fruit juice into solid ice and then, by whirling the ice in a 
centrifugal machine, to take out a larger part of the water and 
leave the solids and flavoring matter of the fruit. This freezing 
and concentrating of the juice greatly reduces the bulk and 

^This recipe was prepared by the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



118 SlTCrSSFlI. CANMNd AM) I'ltKSKia I NC 

makes a jiriidnfl uliidi t-aii Ix- slt-rilizid by ln-atiii^' and krpt 
iiiili'liiiitcly. 

Clurijiinuj .y«/(C-- Those who wish to iiiakt' a clear juice may 
jiltcr the <:ra|)('-iruit juicL' bciore it is ht'at«-d by addiii}^ lo it 
from two to tliiiT \n-r criit (at)oiit tliive ouuces avoirdupois to the 
^'alloiij ol" iuru.sorial earth well washed with liot water. The 
mixture is then forced through a iion-iiietallic lilter-jjress and the 
ch'ar juice reheated and Inidrd. With \\\r rn.'ezing process, the; 
juice is filtered after couceutralion, about twice the amount of 
infusorial eai'th beiirtr used i)er gallon of concentrate. 

The clieiiiists. ill eoiiiicciiou with this l)ottlinj,' of f?rape-fruit 
juice, notify the |)ul)lic that the same process is not suitable for 
bottling the juice of oranges and lemons, which will not retain 
their flavor if handled in this way. 

AVhile as yet, so far as known, there is no commercial market 
for stei'ili/.cd grape-fruit juice, it is believed tiuit numy ])ersons 
will liiid this juice, with the addition of water and sugar, a 
pleasant variation from lemonade or limeade. Those who like 
gra]»<'-fruit should lind the beverage inviting. The method is so 
simple that those in regions where grape-fruit are cheap and 
j)lentiful can ])rei)are this product on a small scale with ordi- 
nary household appliances. 

Bottling Grape Juice. — -Tuiee compressed from the various 
cultivated grapes can be bottled. Recipes follow for leading 
Southern and Northern varieties. 

Scuppernong Grape Juice. — After washing the grapes, crush 
while heating them. Fruit juice will flow more readily when the 
fruit is heated, but the pulp should not be allowed to boil. 
When the pulp is thoroughly soft, strain through a double cheese- 
cloth and s(pieeze as nuich juice through it as possible, then strain 
the juice through a llannel cloth without squeezing. This will 
give a clear juice. After tliis lieat the juice to 180^ Fahrenheit, 
skim and strain into sterilized bottles, i)lace the coi-ks in loosely, 
place the bottles on a rack in the Avatei--bath, and pasteurize for 
fifteen minutes at a temperature of 180° Fahrenheit, l^und 
the cork in tightly, dij) the top of the bottle into .sealing wax. and 
store aw'ay in a dark, dry place. If this juice is to be used for a 



FRUIT JUICES 119 

beveraf?e and siif^ar is desired, it may be sweetened to taste 
before heating and pouring into the bottles. 

If the muscadine orrape juice is to be used for a beverage and 
not for "jelly stock" the cold-press method is the simplest and 
quickest where only the "free-run juice' js bottled, and it yields 
brilliant, transparent juices which are superior in flavor and 
aroma to the dark, cloudy juice obtained from the hot-press 
method. The clear, sparkling grape juice is a delightful, refresh- 
ing drink for summer use. 

Unfermented Concord or Niagara Grape Juice. — To every 
five pounds of Concord or Niagara grapes use one pint of water. 
Crush grapes, add water, bring to boil, and strain through jelly- 
bag. Add one-half cupful of granulated sugar to every quart 
of juice. Bring just to a boil and pour into sterilized bottles, 
pasteurize, and seal air-tight. 

Berry shrub may be made of strawberries, raspberries, or 
dewberries. Select sound fruit, wash, measure, and place in a 
stone jar. For every four quarts of berries use one quart of vine- 
gar. Cover the jar by tying a cheesecloth over it. Stir the berries 
daily for three or four days. If the weather is very warm do not 
let it stand over three days. Strain without squeezing and put 
into kettle, allowing one pound of sugar to each pint of liquid. 
Boil slowly for five minutes, bottle, cork, and seal. Dilute with 
cold water for serving. 

WAYS TO USE FRUIT JUICES 

Grape Cup. — To three pints of grape juice add four whole 
cloves, one cupful of sugar, the juice of four oranges with one- 
half grated orange rind and a few leaves of lemon verbena or 
mint. Bring to boiling-point, cool, and let stand to ripen for two 
or three hours. "When ready to use, stir in the stiffly beaten whites 
of three eggs, a quart of unfermented grape juice, and a pint of 
water, and serve in tumblers with ice. 

Fruit Cup. — Tw'o tablespoonfuls of green tea, two quarts of 
boiling water, two cupfuls of sugar, juice of one orange, one cup- 
ful of currant juice, juice of two lemons. Pour water over tea, 
let stand five minutes, then strain over the sugar; add lemon and 
orange juices, cool, and let ripen in a cool place for six hours. 



IHJQ SUCCKSSl'L L CANMNt; AND I'lIKSKItVINC; 

Wlicii I'cady to scrvi', add tlir rmraiit jiiift.-^ pour nvrr cracked 
it'D in ilecp jjlassus, gariiisliiiif^ each sci\iii;_'' with a small, old- 
fashioned yellow rose or a sj)rig oi' mint. IT desired, the eracked 
ice may be omitted, the punch beinj^ poured over rasjjberry iee 
or jx'ach or i)ineaj)i)le sherbet instead. 

Fruit Punch. — One (piart of raspberry juiee, one (juart of 
currant juiee, three lemons, one ])ineapple, two quarts of cold 
water, three oranges. Sweeten to taste. 

Cherry Punch. — Take one quart of cherry juice and add a few 
crushed ciicri-ies. To one and one-half pints of hot juice and 
pul]) add lhrce-(iuai'tcrs of a pound of sugar, one cupful of 
water, juiee of one lemon. When sugar tlissolves, cool the mix- 
ture and freeze. AVlien half frozen, add beaten white of one e^g 
and one ounce of crushed cherries. 

Grape Punch. — Juice of two lemons, juice of one orange, one 
pint of grape juice, one quart of water, one cupful of sugar, one 
cupful of shredded canned pineapple or one pint of cherries. 
Combine and let stand several hours to ripen before serving. 

Orange Ice. — Tlie juice of six orangi'S and four lemons, five 
cupfuls of sugar, and the grated rinds of two oranges. Pour boil- 
ing water over other oranges and h-mon rinds. Let stand lifteen 
minutes and strain. Pour the flavored water over the other in- 
gredients, and add enough cold water to make one gallon. Freeze 
and serve in orange glasses or orange skins. 

Strawberry Ice. — Two cupfuls of wntei-. fhi"(^e-((uarters of a 
cupful of sugar. Roil from five to ten minutes. Add one cupful of 
strawberry juice, one-half or one tablespoonful of lemon juice, 
one or two sheets of gelatin. Soak gelatin in little water. Bring 
sugar and water to boil. Pour over gelatin. Stir until dissolved 
and sti-ain into strawberry juiee. Freeze. 

Raspberry Ice. — One quart of raspberry juice, one (}uart of 
water, three tablesj)0()nfuls of lemon juice, three and one-(puirter 
cu])f uls of sugar. Boil sugar and water for twenty miinites ; cool, 
add berry juiee and lemon juiee, and freeze in three jiarts ice, to 
one part salt. For a rose-colored ice use only the icd l)ei'i'ie.^, but 
for a rich wine color use ])art or all l)laek rasj)berries. 

Raspberry Float. — Take one-half cupful of red raspberiy 



FRUIT JUICES 131 

juice and one cupful of fruit, JNIix in gradually two tablespoon- 
fuls of powdered sugar. Beat the whites of two eggs until stiff 
and fold into them the sweetened raspberries. 

Blackberry Flummery. — Boil one quart of blackberry juice. 
Rub together four tablespoonfuls of corn-starch and four tea- 
spoonfuls of sugar, add to fruit juice, and boil for ten minutes. 
Strain, cool, and serve with cream or custard. 

Grape Frappe. — One pint of grape juice and one pint of 
water. Heat to boiling-point and strain through cheesecloth. 
Add juice of two lemons and one-half cupful of sugar. Strain 
and freeze. 

Fruit Nectar. — One quart of hot water, one pint of grape- 
fruitade, one egg-white, one-half cupful of finely chopped mint 
leaves, two cupfuls of sugar, four oranges, four lemons. Boil 
the sugar and water for ten minutes. Cool, add the fniit juice, 
and freeze in three parts ice to one part salt. When half frozen, 
add the egg-white well beaten. Pack in ice and salt two or three 
hours to ripen. When ready to serve, half fill tall glasses with 
the ice and pour over the grapefruitade, which shovild be freshly 
opened. Scatter finely chopped, fresh, or candied mint leaves 
over each serving. 

Apollinaris Tea. — Two quarts of apollinaris water, one gallon 
of strong tea, three dozen lemons, one-half dozen oranges cut in 
small pieces with peelings, one quart of cherry juice, one quart 
of grape juice ; sweeten to taste. Serve with crushed ice in punch- 
bowl. This makes enough for one hundred people. 

QUESTIONS 

1. For what purposes may bottled fruit juices be used in the home? 

2. At what point should care begin in our endeavor to secure a good bot- 

tled fruit juice? 

3. Why cannot green fruit or over-ripe fruit be used in making an ex- 

cellent fruit juice? 

4. Why would bruising the fruit in packing or by careless washing produce 

an inferior product? 

5. What is meant by the " free-run juice" of the grape? Wliat method is 

used in obtaining it? For what purpose is it used? How does free- 
run juice differ from the total juice? 

6. What advantage has the juice obtained by the hot process over that ob- 

tained by the cold process? 



loo SUCCKSSFl L ( ANMNC A.\J> I'l^KSKliX l.\( i 

1 ^^ 

7. \\ liy is tlic Imt |piiirc'ss in-fi'Hsary wlicii tin- jiiici' iss to Ik- \t<*^'^\ in j<lly 
iiiiikin;,'? 

S. Mow mav tin- color and llavor Ix- rctaiiifd wlicn iisiii;.' tin- liot j»r<»<'i>BB? 

1). W'liy should fruit j wires not In- lioilcd? How inay tlicy l)c rcla'att-d with- 
out daii;,'(r of hoilinj,'? 

10. \\ liat pn'cautions are nocossary in iiaiidlin-^' tin- tillered juice that tlie 

|iro(luct may bo as clear as jH)ssihie? 

11. W'iiat is the ililFerence between |)asteurization ami >terili/ation ? 

12. What precaution should be taken to prevent the corks hiowinj,' out durinp 

the pasteurization? 

13. What fact makes necessary the false bottom in all <anners and pas- 

teurizers? 
11. What is meant by the term ■"simmer"? How can you tell when water 

is simmering? 
IT). Why is it necessary to cover the cork and one incli of tiie bottle with 

wa.x ? 
1(). Why is it necessary to store fruit juices in a dark place? 

17. How will economy determine th<' size of the bottle prepari'd for home 

use? 

18. Under what conditions would the making: of aj)ple syruj) be economical 

on the farm ? 

19. Give an outline of the method for makinfr grape syrup, including under 

each step the special care needed that the final product may reach the 
standard desired. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. " Creole Cook Book, 1014. Published by the I'icayunc, New Orleans, La. 

By mail, $1.25. 

2. Dkari.ng, Charles T., United States Department of Agriculture, Farm- 

ers' Bulletin 758, "Muscadine Grape Syrup," 191(5. "Home Uses of 
Muscadine Grapes," 1917, Farmers' Bulletin No. 859. Can be se- 
cured from the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

3. Farmer, Fannie Merkitt, " Boston Cooking School Cook Book," 1907. 

Published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. $1.80. 

4. Gore, H. C, United States Department of Agriculture. lUireau of 

Cheminstry, " Studies on Fruit Juices," Bulletin No. 241, June, 1915. 
Can be purchased from the Superintendent of Document?, Government 
Printing Oflice, Washington, D. C. 5 cents. 

5. Hall, F. II., and Van Slyke, L. L., New York Agricultural Experiment 

Station, " Making Cider Vinegar at Home." Bulletin No. 25S, De- 
cember, 1904. New York Agricultural Ivxperimcnt Station, Geneva, 
N. Y. 

6. HusEMANN, George C, United States Department of Agriculture, Farm- 

ers' Bulletin No. 044, " Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape 
Juice," April, 1915. Can be secured from the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture, Washington, D. C. 



FRUIT JUICES 123 

7. Keen, Adelaidk, " With a Sauce Pan Over the Sea," 1002. rulilishod 

by Little. Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. $1.50. 

8. Smith, Fkaxces Lowk, "Recipes and Menus for Fifty." 191:5. Pub- 

lished by Whiteonib & Barrows, Boston, j\Iasa. $l.r){). 

9. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, " Apple 

Syrup and Concentrated Cider'"; " New Products for Utilizing Sur- 
plus and Cull Apples,"' by II. C. (lore. Yearbook Separate 039, from 
Yearlx)ok of the Department of Agriculture for 1914. Can be pur- 
chased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing 
Office, Washington, D. C. 5 cents. 

10. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Do- 

mestic Commerce, " Pineapple Canning Industry of the World." 

11. Van Slyke, L. L., "Chemistry of Homemade Cider Vinegar," Xew 

York Experiment Station Bulletin No. 258. Geneva, New York. 

12. Calvin, H. W., and Leyford, C. A., " Tlie Preparation and Preservation 

of Vegetables," Bulletin No. 47, Department of Interior, Bureau of 
Education, 1918, Washington, D. C. 

13. Cruess, \Y. v., '• Farm and Home Canning," Circular No. 158, also 

" Canning Fruits and Vegetables," Circular No. 1, published by Uni- 
versity of California, Berkeley, Cal. 

14. BiOLETTi, Frederic T., and Cruess, W. V., " Fruit Juices," University 

of California, Berkeley, Cal. 



ciiAi'Ti;!; IX 

FRUITS FOR CANNING 

Apples. — Only Miiiiid, siiiootli. iiic<liimi-si/,('(| cooking' a|)itl('s 
should l»c (■.iiiiicd. Tlic late tall and winter varieties are usually 
sli<i-htly aeid, and tlii-y retain their llavor better than do the sweet 
varieties. Apples shi-ink more in eanninjr than most fruits, and 
for this reason they sli(»uld lie lilanclied I'oi- one minute, then 
plunpfed into a C(jld bath, paeked, and eovered with a syrup of lO 
to 15 dejrrees density (see ]). 132). 

Process quart jars ten minutes. Exhaust Xo. 3 eans two min- 
utes and process eight minutes at boiling temperature (212° 
Fahrenheit) in water-bath. 

Apple Sauce, — Peel, core, and steam the apples initil soft, run 
through colander, return to the fire and heat thoroughly, ])ack 
hot into cans or jars, and seal at once. Process ten minutes at 
212° Fahrenheit in a hot-water bath. 

Berries. — For dewberries, blackberries, raspberries, and 
Logan berries, practicall}' the same methods of canning may be 
used. The condition of the fruit will have much to do witli the 
quality of the product. The berries should be gathered in shal- 
low^ trays or baskets and not in deep vessels which allow them to 
be bruised and crushed. They should be uniforndy rii)e, sound. 
and as large as possible. It is necessary to can all varieties of 
berries in glass or else to put them in enamel-lined cans, be- 
cause if canned in ordinary tin cans the berries will lose both 
color and flavor very quickly, and be unfit for use or for sale. 

The flavor of canned berries will be finer if sugar is used in 
canning. It is best to make this into a syrup. The use of berry 
juice instead of water in this syrup will give a richer color and 
flavor. For fine berries, use a syrup of 30 degrees density (about 
three and one-half pounds of sugar to one gallon of berry juice or 
water). 

After the berries have l)een earcfully soiled and lightly washed 
124 



FRUITS FOR CANNING 125 

by placing in colander and pouring water over them (instead 
of putting into a pan of water) , pack as closely as possible with- 
out crushing. This can be done better by putting a few berries in 
the jar or can, pressing them gently into place, and proceeding 
layer by layer, than b^^ nearly filling the jar loosely and then try- 
ing to press them down. 

Fill jars full of fruit and cover with cooled syrup. Fit the 
rubber in place and fasten the lid loosely on glass jar and then 
process pints for six minutes and quarts for twelve minutes, 
counting the time after lioiling begins. When packing in tin 
cans, fill them to within one-quarter of an inch of the top, cover 
with syrup. Dry the groove around the opening with a clean 
cloth and cap. Exhaust in tin for three minutes and process No. 
2 cans for eight minutes and No. 3 cans for ten minutes. No. 
lO's should be exhausted four minutes and processed for thirty 
minutes. 

Cherries. — Cherries keep their flavor and color with difficulty 
in tin, even in enamel-lined cans. For this reason glass is prefer- 
able. The large black and sweet white cherries are usually packed 
unpitted, while the reverse is true of the acid cherries. The un- 
pitted cherries present a better appearance, and many people 
like the distinctive flavor which the retained pit gives to the 
l^roduct. When cherries are canned whole they should be 
blanched in hot water at about 180° Fahrenheit for twenty or 
thirty seconds. This will slightly soften the fruit and prevent 
splitting. Then drop cherries into a cool syrup and they will 
plump considerably before packing cold into jars. For sour 
cherries use a syrup of 40 degrees density, and for sweet ones 
use a 30-degree syrup (see Syrup table, p. 132). Process 
quart jars for twenty -five minutes; exhaust No. 2 cans for two 
minutes and process for twenty minutes in a water-bath at boil- 
ing temperature (212° Fahrenheit). Both the exhausting and 
processing of cherries in quart jars are accomplished at the same 
time. 

Figs. — Figs for canning should be sound and firm (Fig. 79). 
Treat them with a soda bath as for preserving. Rinse through 
two cold-water baths, drain and cook for forty to sixty minutes in 



lOf, Sr(( KSSIl I, ( AWINC AM) ritKSKKNI N< ; 

tile synip (two I'liiil'iils dl' siiLzar, I'nm- ciijil'iils (if walcr). ('itol, 
jtack, and cuNcr with the synip and |ii'imm'ss for thirty iiiiimtcs 
ill (|iiart jars, l-'iirs n'taiii a lict tcr ••olor and llavnr w li.-ii i-aiiiifd 
ill ciiaiiiclli lied cans than they will it' packccl in |daiii tin cans. 

Gooseberries. — llccansc u\' cxtrcinc acidity ^n^'cii f^oosfberrii's 
<*an li('sal"cly canned without |ll•o(■^■ssill^^ 'i"hc licrrics arc picked 
when nearly full jjrowii, Imt ^irceii. Stem, wasli, |)aek into jars, 
cover with I'resh cohl water, and allow the jars to stand for ten 
nnnutes. hi-ain off the water and a^'aiii iill to ovei'llowiiij; with 
i'l'esh cold water and seal, iisin;^- sterilized rultiiers and lids. 
( iooseberries i-anned in this way are used i'or |)ies. 

Rhubarb may he eaniieil in tiie same manner as jrooschci'rios. 

Peaches. — Sort the Irint, using linn, sound, uniform poaehos 

for caninni;'. and putting' asi(h' the soft, broken ones foi' jam. A 

few very lar^e peaelies are sometimes canned Avliole in a heavy 

syrup and are called .Mel ha peaches. 

Finn, perfect peaches may be lye peeled, but if very ripe the 
fruit is made too soft by this process. The lye method of peelinjr 
is supersedinof the former methods of peeling by hand or by 
boiliiiii' watei-. The object ions to this method were no doubt due in 
some measure to impropei" usage. Have ready a boiling lye solu- 
tion ( four tablespoonfuls of concentrated lye to one gallon of 
water). Drop the peaches into this for about twenty to thirty 
seconds, lift them out, and drop into clear boiling water for a 
like period. Aftei' this place them into a cold bath, when tlie skins 
will come off easily. Cut them into liaKcs, I'emove the seeds, 
and immerse fruit in a hot syruj) testing about -W to 40 degrees 
with a '"Hrix" spindle. The percentage of solids in a liquid is 
indicated by the reading at the surface of the liquid when the 
Brix hydrometer is floated in it (pp. 131 and 182). Allow them 
to stand in this syrup until thoroughly cold, then pack, jilacing 
the halves in overlapping layers, the concave surface of each half 
being downward and the blossom end facing the glass. Fill each 

Note. — If the peaches are not firm, tliey may l)e peeled by lowerinp 
them in a wire basket or clieeseelntli into lioilinfi water imtil the skins slip 
easily (al)out one minute), rcniovc, ])1uiil'i- fur a miinite into cold water, and 
slip off the skins (Plate I). 



• > 




FRUITS FOR CANNING 




Fiu. SO. — Attractive packs of canned fruits: a. Berries, b. Pears, c. Fruit salad. 



128 



SrCCKSSI I I, ( ANMNd AND I'llKSKliN 1 NC 



r\ 



k = 



^ 




Tia.Sl. AH: 
hydrouic-K.'r 



jiir nr (Mil with st I'aiiitd synip ami paddle t-art'- 
l"llll,\ Id fciiiovr air hulijili's. Ivxliailst No. '■'< calls 

tlirrc iiiiiiiilcs, pi'dct'ss fur lil'li-cn iiiiiiiitt's. In 
;rla.s.s, ])r()i-t'.ss (|uart. jars fur Iwciity inimitfs and 
half gallons for thirty-live niiimtrs. 

Pears. — Select i)oars ripe, hut not soft. Somc- 
tiiiies whole Seckel ])ear.s are canned, Ijut the 
iJaitletl pear is i)referred to other varieties for 
canning;, due to its texture and tlavor. Pare, 
hlaiich, put into a eold soda bath (one teas])oonful 
of soda to one gallon of water), drain and pack 
rajiidly. When packed whole, leave stems on and 
place each layer stems up, letting the second row 
fill the spaces between the two stems, and repeat. 
If the pears are to be cut they should be pared, 
evenly divided into halves, and cored. The fruit 
must be kept submerged in water after being 
pared or it will discolor quickly. Eight or ten 
large, perfect pieces, covered with syrup, Avill give 
a good pack. Pack pears, cover with a syrup 
of 20 to 30 degrees density, and process quarts for 
tliirty minutes; exhaust No. 3 cans three minutes 
and process for twenty-five minutes at 212° 
Fahrenheit in a water-bath. 

Plums. — The green-gage, yellow egg, and Lom- 
])nvd ai'e tlie varieties of ])luin.s used for can- 
ning. Only sound, uniform fruit should be 
selected ; stem, wash, grade, prick with needle to 
prevent bursting, pack as firmly as possible with- 
out crushing, cover with a syrup of 40 degrees 
density, and process quarts for fifteen minutes; 
exhaust No. 2 cans two minutes and process ten 
minutes, counting the time after the water-bath 
begins boiling. Enamel-lined cans are necessary 
when packing plums in tin. 

Olives. — The canned ripe olive has been used 
'"'^ in tliis count rv almost exclusivelv as a condiment. 



FRUITS FOR CANNING 



129 



owing partly to price and partly to the irregularity of the 
product. It has unusually high nutritive value and a peculiar 
pleasing taste, two elements which commend it as a food, provided 
the consumer can depend upon getting these qualities. The meth- 
ods of packing are in a more or less 
experimental stage, and improve- 
ment is constantly being made. 

The Mission olive is preferred 
for canning, owing to the superior 
flavor and better texture. A recipe 
for handling olives is quoted under 
the chapter on "Pickling," p. 217. 

Fruit Macedoine. — A combina- 
tion of fruits makes an attractive 
pack in a 30- to 40-degree syrup, 
and it is a convenient product to 
have on hand, since it is ready to 
serve either as a fruit cocktail, 
salad, or dessert. Some of these 
combinations may be more easily 
obtained in one section of the 
country than another. Any light- 
colored fruits will make a pleasant 
mixture : 

(a) Green-gage plums, pears, 
and gooseberries. 

(&) Pineapples, kumquats, figs. 

( c ) Peaches, pears, and cherries. 

Very often fruits such as berries are not included in these com- 
binations, because they would discolor fruits of lighter color and 
would have the tendency to lose their form (Fig. 80, c). 

Golden dressing is a pleasing addition to this mixture when 
served in any of the above-mentioned ways. 

Special Hydrometers. — In order to proceed with certainty, 
instruments called hydrometers have been devised for accurately 
measuring the density of liquids. The one used for the special 
purpose of mea.suring the density of sugar solutions is known as 
a saccharometer. There are three different kinds of sugar hy- 
9 




Fig. 82. — A brass cup which can be 
used in place of glass cylinder for test- 
ing density of syrup and brine. 



SI ( ( I.SSI I L CANMNC AM) I'lJKSKia I N(; 




FKUITS FOR CANNING 



131 



drometers used ; namely, Balling, Brix, and Baunie. The reading's 
are the same on the Balling and Brix instruments. Both indi- 
cate the percentage of sugar present in a solution of water. If 
the Baume is used, a table showing the percentage of sugar corre- 
sponding to the degrees Brix is necessary for these recipes. This 
hydrometer is not suitable for nse in preserving, since the read- 
ings should be converted into terms of either Brix or Balling. 
The Brix instruments may be secured with a range of zero to 30 
degrees or 30 to 60 degrees graduated in tenths of a degree, and 
the Balling with a range of zero to 70 degrees graduated in 
halves of degrees (Fig. 81). This latter instrument is the one 
shown in the illustration. Its range prevents the necessity of 




Fig. S4. — Cleansing rubber rings. 

buying two spindles, and it is accurate enough for ordinary nse 
in canning and preserving. For testing fruit juices in jelly 
making, an instrument with scale ranging from zero to 30 de- 
grees and graduated in tenths of degrees is used. The Balling 
scale shown in the illustration is inexpensive. 

Using the Instruments. — When placed in sufficient water to 
cover it, the spindle floats and the reading at the surface will be 
zero. If put in a heavier liquid than water, it will float, but at a 
different level. By adding solids, in the form of sugar, to water, 
the density increases and the spindle rises. In using a sac- 
charometer it is necessary to have a vessel of sufficient depth in 
which to float it to make the readings. This should be very nar- 
row so as not to require a large quantity of syrup to measure its 



i:?'v' 



Sr( '('KSSI-ri> CANMNd AM) I'l: KsliltX I N( ; 



density. A L'.'tO-ciiltic cent iiiict it {^Ijiss ryliiidri- or a brass sac- 
chai-diiictri- (Mill is Used (Fig. 82). 

Soiiu'tiiiics a tall, slcndri- olive bottler will servo this purpose. 
Tile instniiiieiits arc li-aizilc and (<idy aeciii'ate wlieri used for 
f est in;r syi'ui)s at the teiiiprralure indicated mi 1 lie spindle These 
insti'uiuents will lose their accuracy if too frequently dipped into 
very hot solutions. The spiiulles may be secured mercury 
weighted or weighted with shot. 

Amount of sugar used for syrup of difTereut degrees, using a 
gallou of water as a basis to which the sugar is added : 

SrnAR Sviitp Taklk. 



Donsity, 
dcKrecs, 


Quantity 


of sugar 








Water 


Brix or 








Balling 


Pounds 


Ounces 




5 




7 


Per 1 gallon water. 


10 




14.8 


Per 1 gallon water. 


15 


1 


7.5 


Per 1 gallon water. 


20 


1 


14.75 


Per 1 gallon water. 


25 


2 


12.5 


Per 1 gallon water. 


30 


3 


9 


Per 1 gallon water. 


:}5 


4 


7 75 


Per 1 gallon water. 


40 


5 


8.75 


Per 1 gallon water. 


45 


G 


13 


Per 1 gallon water. 


50 


8 


5.25 


Per 1 gallon water. 


55 


10 


4 


Per 1 gallon water. 


60 


12 


8 


Per 1 gallon water. 



If a hydrometer is not available, see note under Syrup table, page 85. Working without 

hydrometer. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Whv are glass or enamcl-linod cans necessary for canning berries? 

2. Describe how to pack berries that the best results may be obtained. 

3. Of what should the syrup l)e made which is to be used in the canning of 

berries? 

4. Why may green gooseberries be safely canned without processing? 

5. Describe in detail the " lye method " of peeling peaches. What are the 

advantages in using this method? Wlien is it unwise to use it? 



f.ll'.IJOCUAPHY 



See Chapter X, page 147. 



CHAPTER X 

VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 

Brine used for packing- most of the vegetables is made of 
two and one-half ounces of salt to one gallon of water, except for 
asparagus, for which a heavier brine is used which contains four 
ounces of salt to one gallon of water. 

Seasoning. — A seasoning mixed in the proportion of one part 
of salt and two parts of sugar is used in some canned vegetables. 
Two level teaspoonfuls of this mixture should be added to each 
quart jar or No. 3 can of tomatoes, and one teaspoonfnl added 
to each No. 2 can. This mixture is also used for peas, lima beans, 
and corn. The flavor of these products is much superior to those 
canned Avithout sugar and salt seasoning. 

Asparagus. — Select only young, tender asparagus for can- 
ning. It should be packed immediately to preserve it at its best. 
The stalks should be graded as to size and washed carefully to 
prevent any staining from the soil. The stalks are tied into 
bundles and blanched from three to four minutes. On account 
of the tips being more tender than the stalks, place the lower 
ends in the blanch first, allow them to stand for two or three 
minutes, and then emerge the entire bundle for one or two 
minutes longer, then plunge into cold water. The asparagus is 
again carefully graded into white and green lots and packed 
carefully, having the tips up. Fill the cans or jars with brine 
(four ounces of salt to one gallon of water) and process inter- 
mittently for one hour on each of three successive days in a hot- 
water bath; or in a steam canner for thirty minutes at a 
temperature of 240° Fahrenheit, under ten-pound steam pressure. 
Asparagus which has been allowed to stand over night has lost 
much in color and flavor ; it should be canned immediately after 
cutting. 

Artichokes. — A very small amount of Burr Artichoke is 
packed in this country. The domestic artichokes have a thicker 
"biscuit" on the base of the leaves than the imported. 

133 



531 MccKssi I I. (ANmm; and J'j:i;si;k\ im; 

Srlccl hiiff lii'jids iiiiironii ill size. nMiiovc llic liii'^'cr oiilor 
Icjivrs :iiii| lit' tlic ullicrs tuLTct her, tlirii hlaiicli I'oi- livr iiiiiiiif cs, 
]»;n'k into y.ws ami cdvci' with liriiic (two iiiul oiic-lialt" (iiiiiccs of 
salt to our jialloii dl" water i. I'focrss pint jai's and No. 1* cans 
ill hoiliiijr-water bath lor one lioiir. Soiiirtimcs just the hearts, or 
"biscuits" as they are often called, ai-e |)aeked. The base of the 
flower shouhl he one to one and oin'^-half iiiehes in (liaineter and 
half an inch thick when the leaves ai"e removed. The vejretal)le 
is lilaiiched ;iiid dipijcd into a cold hath before being trimnied. 
'J'hey ai'c then |)acked into the jars and covered with lu'iiie and 
processed ill the same manner as the whoh' heads. 

This vefjetable is considered a delicacy. It is used almost ex- 
clusively in the hotel trade. One difficulty in i)ackiiij; this vejre- 
tahle is that it turns dark while i)acking and becomes unattrac- 
ti\(' ill ap|)earance, though the flavor may be unchanged. 

String Beans. — The green "Refugee" and "Stringless Green 
Pod" ai'e good varieties for canning. Beans should be picked 
while still young and tender and should be canned very fresh, 
AVhen the beans within the })ods have grown to any size canning 
is more difficult ami the finished product is poor. The beans 
should be graded according to tliickiiess. and only small, tender 
beans should be nsed for canning. String the beans and cut 
them into two-inch lengths; cutting diagonally, or "on the bias,'' 
gives an attractive product. l>laiicli for thi-oe to five minutes in 
a soda bath (one teas])oonful of soda to one gallon of water"), 
plunge into a cold salt bath (one tal)les]ioonfid of salt to one <|uart 
of water) for twenty to thii-fy seconds. This Ircatnient will assist 
in preserving the green coloi", and the finished j^roduct will be 
more attractive. Drain well and pack quickly. Tlu^ beans may 
be jiacked in log-cabin fashion in s(|uai'e jai's. If the b(>ans 

are to be packed whole, they should be cut into even lengths, 
packed in the jars, covered with brine (two and one-half ounces 
of salt to one gallon of watei-'i . and |)rocesse(l in the hot-watei- bath 
intermittently; or they may be treated in a steam eanner for 
forty-five minutes at a temperature of 240° Fahrenheit, under 
ten pounds steam ])ressure, wdiich will be suflfieient to sterilize 
beans in (piart jars and No. 2 cans. 



VEGKTAHIJOS Koi; ',.:ANN1NG I35 

Wax Beans. — The wax heaiis are liaiidled in the same way as 
the string- beans. Sometimes the seasoning of sugar and salt is 
added to this product wlien packing. Exhaust No. 2 cans three 
minutes and process intei-mittently. 

Lima Beans. — There are two varieties of lima beans — the 
vine or pole variety and the bush variety. The first named is 
used for drying and the last for canning green. This vegetable 
should be gathered when the beans are in prime condition and 
sorted carefully. The very large beans, that look starchy and 
have the appearance of soaked beans, are often canned for succo- 
tash in the section of the country where corn and beans mature 
at the same time. After blanching the beans, fill the cans, add 
brine (two and one-half ounces of salt to one gallon of water), 
exhaust and })rocess in the same manner as for string beans. 

Baby Beets. — Beets used for canning should be of uniform 
deep-red color throughout. The best variety of beets for canning 
is the "Detroit." From a standpoint of quality, only young, 
tender beets should be canned. Sort, putting uniform sizes to- 
gether, steam for about twenty minutes, or boil until three- 
fourths cooked, to loosen the skins. Do not allow cold water to 
touch the beets after they have been cooked, as it sometimes 
causes them to lose color. Peel and pack whole those beets which 
average one inch in diameter; those above two inches are cut 
into slices. Cover the beets in the cans with clear, hot water. 
The flavor of the finished product is better if no seasoning is 
added during the canning. Process quart jars one to two hours, 
exhaust No. 2 cans for three minutes and process same as for 
quarts, or in a steam canner for 30 minutes at a temperature 
of 228° Fahrenheit. 

Beets should never be packed in tin unless the cans are enamel 
lined. About thirty baby beets to each No. 2 can is considered a 
good pack ; by weight sixteen ounces of beets and four ounces of 
liquor give a standard pack (Fig. 85 and Plate I, A). 

Carrots. — Carrots used for canning should be young and 
tender and not more than one and one-half inches in diameter. 
They are washed, scraped carefully, steamed or l><)iled until three- 



inr. 



SrCCKSSITI. ('ANNIN<; AND 1M{KSK!1\ IXC 




VEGETABLES FOR CAI^NrNG 137 

fourths cooked, and cut into lengths of the can, sliced or diced. 
Fill the jars or cans and cover with brine (two and one-half 
ounces of salt to one gallon of water) and process for one hour. 

An attractive pack of carrots in glass may be made by plac- 
ing the circles in layers, fitting the second layer into the space 
left by the first layer and repeating until the jar is filled. The 
center should be filled in as each outside layer is placed against 
the glass. 

Corn. — In the canning of corn much depends upon the careful 
selection of tender, juicy corn before it readies the starchy stage. 
If allowed to grow beyond the point of greatest succulence it be- 
comes tough and dry. The sweet white variety is preferable for 
canning. The Western yellow corn is less succulent. Corn grows 
stale very quickly and loses its flavor; therefore it should never be 
allowed to stand longer than a few minutes after being snapped 
from the stalks before canning. Blanch on the cobs from one to 
three minutes. There are different procedures followed in cutting 
the kernels from the cob ; the kernels may be cut very close to 
the cob and no scraping done ; this will give a canned corn with 
nearly whole separate kernels in the brine. By another method 
the cutting may be done in such a manner that the outer end of 
the grain is cut ofi: first, and then the lower part of the kernel 
is removed by a second cutting; this cutting will give a creamy 
consistency to the finished product. Another style of cutting the 
corn from the cob is to slit the end of the kernels and squeeze 
out the contents ; this will give a hull-less product similar to the 
commercial "Kornlet." After removing the corn from the cob 
it may be packed into the jars or cans cold to Avithin one inch of 
the top ; add one and one-half teaspoonfuls of the salt-and-sugar 
mixture to each jar or can and cover with clear water; paddle 
to allow the liquid to permeate to the bottom of the containers. 
Exhaust No. 2 tin cans for ten minutes, process intermittently, 
cooling immediately after each processing by plunging the cans 
into cold water. If canning in glass, process quart jars inter- 
mittently, raising the clamp during each processing; for com 
expands in cooking and the jars may be broken unless the lids are 
loosened during each processing. 



i;{,S SrCCKSSri L CANMNC AM) I'JIKSKKX I N( ; 

A jirodinM dl" mure iiiii t'oi'iii coiisistciicy can In- nlilaiiicd hv 
lit'aliiijr llic cuni willi llu? .scasoiiiii^f (.siiy:ar, salt, and a little 
wati'i-i Ixdoi-f packing'' it itit<» the cans. This will cause tlic cx- 
paiisidii of tlir kci'ncis licrurc pa(•kin;_^ and the I'csult will lie a 
liillcf pack and sliurlcn the lime of the exhaust to live minutes 
instead oi' ti'U minutes, if the coi-n is packed hot into hot cans. 
It. mas' seem that the heat inii: of the pnlji complicates or len<;tli(Mis 
the pt'oeess, luit the time sa\'e(| in exhausting'' and the condition 
(d" the linished piodiict make it worth while. 

Take e\-erv pi-ecaution lo ha\e Li'ood ruhliers. and kecj) 1lio 
process at hoi I i nil' point for the entire time. The steps in tiie ean- 
ulwj; (d' coi'u sliouhl foMow in rajiid succession, allowinji' ojie hour 
fi'om the time the corn is gathered until it is sealed in the can 
ready foi- the process. If processed or sterilized in a steam retort, 
eiyhty minutes under a fifteen-pound pressure will be suf- 
ficient for heavy corn ; or, if a water-bath is used, canned corn 
should be processed intermittently foi- one 1k)UI* on each of three 
successive days. 

Lye Hominy. — Use tlie sweet flat corn. .Most early varieties 
of sweet corn, of which "Stoweirs Evergreen" is an example, 
have the flat kernels. To obtain best results in ju'eparing lye 
hominy, dissolve two ounces of coneenti-ated lye in one gallon of 
hoiliiig water ; drop the corn into this solution and boil rapidly for 
twenty-five to thirty minutes. Drain and drop into cold water. If 
possil)le, allow cold Avater to run over it for three or four hours 
to remove all traces of the lye. After this, place in a barrel churn 
and turn the churn for five to ten minutes to remove the hulls 
and black eyes. After removing the hulls, place the corn in an 
enamelled kettle, cover with cleai- boiling water, and cook until 
tender. Wash again and remove any hulls or eyes Avhich you 
failed to take oft' in the churn. Eiuimeldined cans or glass should 
be used for packing hominy. Fill the cans to within one half 
inch of the top and cover with brine (two and one-half ounces 
of salt to on(; gallon of water). Cap and exhaust for ten min- 
utes. l*rocess in No. 2 cans intermittently in a hot-water bath, 
or in a steam canner for fifty minutes under a fifteen-pound 
steam ])ressure. This product is more easily sterilized in No. 2 



vecktabi.es for canning 139 

cans. It is very iin})()rtaiit that all trace of the lye be removed 
before packing the hominy into the cans. 

Okra. — Select young, tender pods, removing the stem end 
without cutting into the seed sections, blanch in the soda bath (as 
for beans), i)lunge into the cold salt bath, drain, pack into jars, 
cover with brine, and process the same as for beans. This 
product is used almost exclusively in Southern cookery and is not 
generally known in the North. If the oki'a is to be packed for 
soups, it may be sliced after blanching, as it is hard to cut after 
canning. If a steam canner is used, process for thirty minutes 
under a fifteen-])ound steam pressure (Fig. 85 and Plate I, A). 

Peas. — Peas are more difficult to can than most other vege- 
tables, and special care should be taken in handling them. Use 
only fresh, young peas. They should be gathered in the early 
morning and canned as soon as possible. Work should be done 
rapidly, and the peas should not stand after being shelled. Shell 
and sort, putting peas of the same size and grade of maturity to- 
gether. Be sure not to use hard, ripe peas among the tender 
ones. The peas are blanched according to their age and size until 
well done ; this prevents a cloudy liquor and makes the peas 
tender, also removing some of the gluey substance which some- 
times coats the peas. The very young, tender peas need scarcely 
more than one to two minutes' blanch, while the very old ones 
may need twenty minutes'. The time should be sufficient to make 
the peas tender, otherwise they will remain hard in the processing. 
The peas are blanched in the soda bath and dipped into the 
cold salt water for twenty to thirty seconds after blanching, the 
same as for beans. Pack the peas to within one-half inch of the 
top of the jars or cans. If the cans are too full, some of the peas 
may burst during the processing and make the liquor cloudy. Put 
one and one-half level teaspoonfuls of the salt-and-sugar mixture 
in each No. 2 can. Cover the peas with water, exhaust No. 2 cans 
three minutes, and process in hot-water bath intermittently one 
hour on each of three successive days. If the peas are very small 
and tender, forty-five minutes to each processing will be sufficient. 
Cool the tins quickly after each processing. This may be done by 
plunging the cans into cold water. Process quart jars one hour 



1 10 Sl'l'CKSSFL'L ( A.\.\JN<; AM) l'l;l.M:il\ I N(J 

on t'acli (if tlirct' siicccssivf days. No. Ll fans of jx-as may he 
sterilized in a sleaiii I'rtort i'oi- I'oi'ty-five ininules undei- a ten- 
l>onnd steam j)fessufe. 

Pimientos. — The |)e|)j)ei-s should he |)ieke(l in iheeai-ly moi*n- 
in^' and handled eartd'ully to prevent hinisinjr. This ean he (h»ne 
hy phieinf^ them in shallow trays. I'l-oiii whicli they can he easily 
sorted. Tlie inedinm-si/ed, iiniforndy sound j»e|>|)ers shouhl be 
canned whole. The iriv'trular. hi'okeii ones may ])e eut into 
strii)s and eanned or used in i-elishes. sauces, or soup mixtures. 

Select sound, uuil'oriii pimientos of medium si/.e. To remove 
seeds, cut around the stem of each with a slendei- paiin;.' knife and 
remove the inside partitions. To peel, place the peppers in a hot 
oven from six to ten miinites (until the skin l)listers and cracks), 
being careful not to allow them to burn. Then remove the skin 
with a slender jiarin*? knife. Flatten tlie peppers and pack in 
liorizontal layers. Xo liquid is used in canning pimientos. The 
l)rocessing brings out of the pimientos a thick liquor, which almost 
covers them in the can or jar. Cap and exhaust Xo. 1 cans for 
two minutes and Xo. 2 cans for three minutes. Tip and process 
in hot water at boiling temperature (212° Fahrenheit), the Xo. 1 
cans for twenty minutes, the X'o. 2. cans for thirty-five minutes. 
AVhen canning in glass the pint jars should be well filled, then 
capped and processed for twenty-five minutes at 212° Fahrenheit 
(Fig. 86). 

Chile Peppers. — The long, sweet green Chile peppers are 
picked and canned when full grown. Unlike the pimientos, the 
Chile peppers are canned before any tint of red appears. The 
pods may be dropped into hot oil to loosen the skins from the 
fleshy part. As soon as they are cool remove the skin, stem, and 
])ress out the seeds, leaving the Chile as nearly whole as possible, 
roll the Chile peppers and pack into cans, cover with brine, using 
one ounce of salt to one gallon of water, process the same as for 
pimientos (Fig. 87). 

Pumpkins. — The best pumpkins for canning are those which 
color and ripen evenly. Wash the pumpkin, cut into slices, and 
steam until tender. TJemove the pulp from the shell and heat it 
thoroughly in a pan over boiling water. A double boiler is a 



VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 



141 



convenient utensil to nse for this purpose. Spices may be added 
to the pumpkin if desired, and the flavor obtained by cooking the 
spices in at the time of canning is better than making the addition 
at the time of using. The following proportion of ground spices 
is generally used : For each quart of steamed strained pumpkin 




Fig. 86. — Roasting and packing pimientos. 



add one-half cupful of brown sugar, two teaspoonfuls of cinna- 
mon, one teaspoonful of salt, and one teaspoonful of ginger. Stir 
the pulp until of a smooth, even consistency, pack into cans or 
jars while hot, and process in a water-bath intermittently one 
hour on each of three successive days or process in a steam- 



M: 



SrcCKSSI-TI. CANMNC WD I'llKSKIU I N(; 



|ircs.siiff (iiiHit \'nr s\\\\-\\\r iiiiniitcs imdcr ten iiuiimls |»rcssiir(>. 
Rhubarb. — Sclccl ilmliaili wliidi has mat iiitiI (piickly. 'I'l'iin 
iilV the upper and lower t-iids, wasli and cut into t\tii IciilMIis. 
It may ])o |)acl<i(l in 1ou;_' strips in jrlass or it may he cut into 
incli ]('ii<rtlis. l-'ill the jars as tijrlitly as j)ossil»lr witliout crushin'^ 
llu' pieces, and adil wali'f or syrup. As swLrar is necessary when 
usin<r the rhuliarh. it is better tluit it he adde(l at the time of ean- 




ViG. >-7 Atu. 



loks in the ccntor. 



ning. If synip is desired, nso one-half eiipfnl of sujrar to one 
quart of water. Rhubarl) -wlien packed in tin must be put into 
enamel-lined cans. It is usually preferred canned in jrlass. 
Process No. 2 cans and cpiart jai-s in hot-water bath for fifteen 
minutes at 212^ Fahrenheit. 

Spinach. — Prepare the spinaeh by picl<inu- oft' all the dead 
lca\-es and cnttin? off the roots. C^ovei- one peck of spinach for 
two minutes with scalding water in which you have dissolved one 



VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 143 

teaspoonfnl of soda to a fjalloii of water. Wash thoroughly, 
using a large tub of water so dirt can sink to the l)ottoni ; drain 
and boil rapidly in boiling water four to six minutes. Drain well 
and pack hot into sterilized jars or cans, cover with boiling salt 
water, using one tablespoonful salt to one quart of water. Process 
in a water-Lath for one hour at 212° Fahrenheit, or in a steam 
canner for o.") minutes under ten pounds pressure. 

Other Greens. — Young, tender beet tops, Swiss chard, and 
dandelions may be canned by the method outlined for spinach. 

Squash. — Squash is canned by the same method as pumpkin, 
omitting the spices. 

Sweet Potato. — Sweet potatoes should be canned as soon as 
possible after digging. A potato which is dry and mealy when 
canned is desired for market. The Xancy Hall is one of the 
best varieties for canning. The Triumph and Southern Queen 
are also used. When the potatoes are allowed to stand before can- 
ning they bruise easily and start to decay at the points where the 
rootlets emerge. Select absolutely sound potatoes, sort, putting 
together those of the same size^ — those under one and one-half 
inches in diameter in one lot and those above one and one-half 
inches in diameter in another — boil or steam until the potatoes are 
about half cooked, when the skin will slip ofif easily. Peel as soon 
as the potatoes are cool enough to handle, and pack hot into cans 
or jars as quickly as possible to prevent discoloring. For a 
fancy pack the potatoes are placed in layers, but a standard pack 
can be made by mashing the potatoes, heating thoroughly, and 
packing the potatoes hot. All space in the can should be tilled 
Avith potato, as the presence of air will cause discoloration. Ex- 
haust No. 3 cans for ten to fifteen minutes. The exhaust should 
be very hot, as the sweet potato is a poor conductor of heat, and 
the heat penetrates through the sweet potato to the center of the 
can very slowly. Process for four hours straight in boiling water 
or seventy minutes under fifteen pounds steam pressure. 

Tomatoes. — The fruit should be gathered in shallow trays 
and the ])icking done in the shortest posible time. The tomato is 
a delicate fruit, and if it is allowed to stand several days before 
canning, or if it is picked before being ripe and allowed to stand, 



Ill 



srci'KSSiTL c.WMNc AM) i'i;i:si:i:\i NC 



it docs not develop its charaeteristie flavor. Sort and t^'rade the 
I'luit. Wasli, putting; into trays or S(piares of cheesecloth, and 
lowering into boilintr water for one minuU*. liernove at once to 
prcnciit eookinj,'. IMun^'e into cold water to make the fruit 
firmer. Peel promptly. Cut out the core with a slender-pointed 
knife, being careful not to cut into the seed-cells. Pack only 
red, ripe, sound tomatoes, whole or in large pieces. Add two 
teas{)oonfuls of the sugar-and-salt mixture to each No. 3 can or 
quart jar, and one and one-half tca.s'poonfuLs in each No. 2 can; 




Fi-j. 88. — Tomatoes packed for salad (the thick sauce has been drained off). 

exhaust for three minutes and process No. 2 cans for twenty 
minutes and No. 3 cans and quart jars for twenty-five minutes. 

In canning tomatoes in tin no addition of tomato juice in 
excess of the amount present in the tomatoes canned should be 
allowed if the product is to be put on the market. Any water 
or extra tomato juice is considered an adulteration. "When it Is 
desired to keep tomatoes whole for exhibits or home use, they may 



VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1J,5 

be packed carefully in glass. A thick tomato sauce poured over 
them will aid in keeping the tomatoes whole, plump, and of a 
better color than is possible when they are packed in a thin 
liquor. From an economical standpoint, a jar of tomatoes packed 
in sauce is a fine product; the sauce may be used for soups and 
whole tomatoes for salads (Fig. 88). 

Tomato Puree. — Small, irregular, and undersized tomatoes 
can be nuide into puree or soup. For this purpose they should 
be cooked and strained at the time they are canned rather than 
canned fresh. The tomatoes are washed, graded, and cooked 
until tender, then run through the colander and put over the 
fire again. The mixture is then concentrated to from one- 
half to one-third of the original volume. This concentrated to- 
mato sauce may be canned and processed by the method outlined 
for tomatoes. The concentrated mixture, of course, requires 
fewer cans and jars, as the amount of water canned is reduced, 
and, with cans costing as they do, this is an important con- 
sideration. 

Soup Mixture. — A good combination to use for this mixture 
is one quart of thick tomato pulp, two cupfuls of corn or tiny lima 
beans, and two cupfuls of okra, with seasoning of salt, sugar, pep- 
per, and sliced onion (Fig. 85, D). Cook this mixture together for 
ten minutes, pack in No. 2 cans or glass jars, exhaust for five min- 
utes, and process for two hours, or in a vSteam canner for thirty- 
five minutes under fifteen pounds pressure. 

Turnips. — Canned turnips are not generally used. Sometimes 
they are packed commercially for hotel use. Only small, tender 
turnips should be canned. Wash, scrape, blanch for five to eight 
minutes, pack into cans, cover with hot brine (two and one-half 
ounces of salt to one gallon of water) and process for two hours, 
or intermittently one hour on each of three successive days. 

Creole Sauce. — Tw^o cupfuls of corn, three tablespoonfuls of 
chopped onion, one tablespoonful of celery seed (crushed), three 
tablespoonfuls of butter, one cupful of sliced okra, one bay leaf, 
one clove of garlic (chopped), one quart of tomato juice and 
pulp, one cupful of chopped sweet red pepper, one cupful of 
chopped sweet green pepper. Salt and pepper to taste. Strain 
10 



lli; .sUceKssiTL ( .\.\NL\(; AM) i'Ki;si;i;\ i\(i 




Fio. 89. — Vegetables packed fresh for soup mixture. 



VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 147 

the seeds and skins out of the cooked tomatoes, keeping all pulp 
possible. Cook ehopi)ed onion in butter luitil yellow. Add the 
prepared vegetables and seasoning. Simmer until the corn is 
tender. Pack hot in twelve-ounce or pint jars or No. 2 cans. 
Process in the glass jars for thirty minutes. Exhaust No. 2 
cans for five minutes and process for twenty minutes. 

Mushrooms. — Directions for canning mushrooms may be ob- 
tained from Experiment Station Bulletin No. 98, "Preserving 
Wild Mushrooms," published by Oregon Agricultural College, 
Corvallis, Ore. 

QUESTIONS 

1. state a general outline to be followed in the selection, preparation, and 

canning of most vegetables. If any step should be omitted for special 
vegetables, note the step, naming the vegetables for which it should 
be omitted; if thei'e should be any steps added for special vegetables, 
describe them, naming the vegetables for which they are necessary. 

2. What is the usual strength of brine used with vegetables? 

3. What is the proportion of sugar and salt in the sugar-and-salt mixture? 

4. For what vegetables should a tin can not be used unless it is enamel 

lined? Why is this true? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTERS IX AND X 

1. Creswell, M. E., and. Powell, Ola, "Pimientos," revised I9I8, Circular 

No. A-84, states Relations Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

2. Cruess, W. v., " Home and Farm Canning," 1917, Circular No. 158, 

" Canning Fruits and Vegetables, Methods of Food Preservation," 
" Drying Fruits and Vegetables, ISIethods of Food Preservation, III." 
University of California, Berkeley, California. 

3. Handy, Amy L., " War Food." Published by Houghton Mifflin Company, 

New York City, N. Y. 

4. The Canning Trade, "A Complete Course in Canning," 1911. Published 

by the ]\IacNeal Printing Company, Baltimore, Md. $5. 

5. Yot'NG, Ermentine, " Canning and Preserving Fruit and Vegetables and 

Preparing Fruit Pastes and Syrups," 1892. Published by the Rural 
Publishing Company, New York City, N. Y. 

6. Deabing, Ciias., "Home Uses for Muscadine Grapes," 1917, Farmers' 

Bulletin No. 859, "Muscadine Grape Syrup," 1917, Farmers' Bul- 
letin No. 758, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
Note. — See footnote under Bibliography, page 299, for complete list of 

instruction circulars prepared especially for use in the Home Canning Clubs 

for Boys and Girls in the North and West. 



PRESERVES 

A rKESKKVKi) Fivii'r is dill' w liicli lias been cooked in caiit'-su^ar 
s,\ ruj) until it is cltar, ttiidcr, and 1 ransparent. It should keep 
its form and jtluiupnoss and be crisi) rather than touj?h or soft. 
"When iinislu'd, the eells of the fruit should be tilled \with the Ha- 
vored syrup in plaee of the I'luit juice. 

In p'licial, all 1 lie principles thus far discussed in caniiiiifr arc 
to be api)lied also in preserving. The special probh-ni in i)reserv- 
ing is to be able to introduce the syrup gradually enough to make 
it possible for the syrups to pei-meate the fruit thoroughly with- 
out shrinking and toughening it. When fruit is dropped at once 
into hot syrup that is too dense, the juice of the fruit will be 
drawn out so rapidly by this heavy liquid as to shrink the fruit. 
Then the outside surface becomes so coated with thiek syrup that 
little can enter the fruit. In order to prevent this toughening and 
shrinking, it is necessary to start the cooking of llie fruit in a 
thin syi'up. Most preserves should be begun in a syru]) testing 
about •5<* to 40 degrees Brix or Balling and gradually have the 
syrup thicken by boiling with the fniit in it (Frontispiece). 

Cooking Preserves. — Preserves should be cooked over a very 
hot tire as rapidly as possible to have the finished product spark- 
ling bright, clear, and of a good color. If slowly cooked, the result 
will be a dull, dark, unattractive product. The fruit, while cook- 
ing, should be well covered with tlie syrup so that no top pieces 
will dvy on llie surface and slii'ivel before a sufficient amount of 
syrup has entered the ])ieces to jilunip them. Sometimes the 
syiiip becomes too thick before the fruit is sul'ticieiilly clear and 
tender, as may liappen when a small (piantity of fruit is cooked 
in a large pan. In this case the water in the syrup evaporates 
more quickly on account of the broad surface exposed, and the 
syrup should be thinned by adding a small amount of water or a 
quantity of thinner syrup. Beginning the j)rocess of preserving 
fi'uit in a thin synip, cooking rai)idly until pieces are clear and 
148 



PRESERVES 



149 



allowing tlie fruit to stand immersed in the syrup over night will 
cause more of the syrup to permeate the fruit and plump it. If 
this process be carried on gradually enough, the fruit may be com- 
pletely saturated with syrup (as in the case of crystallized 




Fig. 90. — Packing watermelon rind presen'es, Peabody College for Teachers, 
Nashville, Tenn. 

products) without shrinking. The finished product should keep 
its original form, be plump, mellow, and clear. 

For preserving such finiits as chayotes, pears, and watermelon 
rind (Fig. 90) a syrup not heavier than 30 degrees Balling (p. 



1 no 



SLCCKssii L ( ANMNc WD i'i;i;si:i;\ I N< ; 



A 



}'-V2) sliniild lie iiscti lo l)r;j-iM I he cddkiii^. .Juicy fi'uits like berries 
may lie put at tlie licj.'-iiiniii;,'- into a heavier syrup. al)()Ut 40 to 4.") 
(lejfi't'es |{allill^^ lieeausc llir aliuiidaiit juices of 
the fruit (piickly i-ediice the di-nsity of the syrup 
liel'oi'c shrinkiiiL;- can take |)hice. Fiuislied i)re- 
scrves are packed in a syiiip ranij^iu;^ in density 
from 50 to tiO (h';,M-ees lialliiiy:. Wlieu acid fruits 
are a(hh'd to the syrup some of the su<;ar is iu- 
\-crted oi- changed to a I'orni whicli will not readily 
ci-ystallize, and for this ri'ason the syrup may be 
made heavier without daiijrer of crystallization. 
Since long cooking injures the color and flavor 
of fruits, it is desirable to cook delicate fruits, 
such as hci'ries, for as short a time as possible. 

Cooling Preserves. — Cooling rapidly^ after 
cooking gives preserves a better color and flavor 
than can be secured Avlien they are packed hot. 
Standing innnersed in the syiiip after cooking 
helps to plump the fruit. Sjudlow enamelled 
trays or pans are desirable for cooling. Running 
cold water underneath the pans will help to cool 
them more rapidly (Fig. 92). Tin utensils should 
not be used, because the fniit juices will discolor 
in it. 

Packing. — Pack preserves cold. Bring the 
syrup in which they have been standing to boil- 
ing, strain, test, and, if proper density, pour over 
the packed preserves, paddling the packed jars to 
i-(iii()ve all air bubbles. If not of the right weight 
for packing, the syrup must be concentrated to 
tlie |)i'oi)ei' densit\- 1)\- boiling it. A well-packed 
jar of preserves will contain fniits or pieces of 
Fig. 91— A (hem- fj-uit of uuifomi sizc appropriate for filling the 

ioal thermometer — 

Centigrade. space witliiu the jar. These pieces should be 

arranged in rows or layers in such a way as to give the entire 
pack a symmetrical or well-balanced appearance. A little more 



PRESERVES 



151 



time and care is required to pack in this way, but the space is 
economized and the quality of the finished product is enhanced 
(Fig. 93). 

Sealing Preserves. — To seal properly and to insure safety 
from mold, it is necessaiy to process all preserves after packing 
them into the sterilized jars. This processing may be done in a 
water-bath by heat below or at the boiling temperature, depend- 
ing upon the kind of products packed and upon the length of 
time the heat is applied. Since preserves contain so much sugar, 
which acts as a preservative, it is only necessary to process 
against molds. This may be accomplished by placing the filled 
jars in a \vater-bath, heating it to a temperature of 180° to 190° 




Fig. 92. — Cooling and plumping preserved fruits. 

Fahrenheit, and holding that temperature for about thirty 
minutes. This method preserves a better texture and flavor in 
the fruit, than can be retained when processing is done at a 
higher temperature. 

Process preserves or jams in twelve-ounce or pint jars for 
twenty minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (temperature of simmering 
water). When jars Avith glass tops and screw caps or wire 
clamps (lightning seal) are used, leave the pressure of the clamp 
on the top of cap until the jars are entirely cold. 

Special Equipment. — Success depends more upon the perfect 
freshness of the fruit than any other feature. ' ' From the patch 
with dispatch, " is a good slogan. 



]:,'^> SUCCESSFUL CANNING; AM) I'UKSKKNI NO 

I iiifdi'iii irsulls may Ix- olitaiiirtl mon,- easily if .suiiic sjx-cial 
(•i|iiii)iiiciit. such as ltimkI ciiaiiit'l or aluniiiiuiii vessels, scales, 
iiicasufini,'' (Mips, wooden spoons, paddles, lliei-iiionieters, and 
saccliaronieters, is secured. A thernionictcr which drives readinjxs 
liy dt'frrees Falii'eiiheit for each degree from zei'o to 250° is use- 
ful in det(>rmiiiing tlie linisliinjj^ ])oint in j)reserves (Fig. 91) ; 
l(tr)io^ 1o liKlL, ^ Centigrade, or 222' to 224^ Fahrenheit is 
iH'commtiided as tlie linisliiiig point for most fruits. The syrup 




I'lG. 93. — Packing preserved fips, W: 



i.N, Fluiidu 



will not i-cach 224^ Fahronlieit iiidil a siiflicieiit amount of water 
iias been driven off by the boiling. The temperature test is per- 
haps the simplest test for the finished pi-eserving syru]i. All of 
the different batches of preserves should be eooked enough and 
l)e of uniform consistency. Some sour fruits, such as cherries and 
cui-ranls, when preserved are cooked to a higher temperature. 
becau.se of the acid present. lOG'' to 108^ Centigrade or 224° 
to 22fr Fahrenheit is a good fiinshing point for th(>se products. 
The saccharometer is a little more (lifliciilt than llie tlier- 
mometer to handle, since sullieient .syiMij) must be taken from 



PRESERVES 



153 



the kettle, poured over the spindle into a cylinder or bottle deep 
enough to float it, and the reading taken, or the spindle may be 
floated in the kettle if it is deep enough. 

Proportion of Sugar. — Usually three-fourths pound of sugar 
for each pound of fruit is allowed for preserves. Firm fruits 




Fio. 94. — Packing peanut butter commercially. (Courtesy Beachnut Co.) 



like quinces, melon rinds, hard pears, and crab apples are better 
if cooked in boiling water until tender before adding them to 
the syrup. 

The use of preserves in the daily menu should be limited, since 
they are so much richer than fresh and plain canned fruits. 
Strawberries, plums, sour cherries, quinces, and melon rind are 
more palatable when preserved than when canned. 

Berries. — None but the freshly picked berries should be pre- 
served. Practicallv the same methods are to be followed in the 



I -, I srCCKSSKLI. I ANMNC AND I'l: lO-lKX I N( ; 

|pi-fSfi-viii^' (if all hm-ics. I'.ei-rics slinuld In- ;_Mt licr-cd in sliall<iw 
ti-a\s (ti- hasUcts, and ixil in (\rf\i \rsscls wliicli ailnw tlicni 1<t l»i> 
lifuiscd and cnislicd. Tlicy should ho uiiironii, i-ipc. and sound: 
oid\' larjrt", lirni IicitIcs shoidd he sclcctccl for iiri-stTvin;.''. All 
hfi-rirs should It cai-cfully soiMcd and li^dillv waslu'd hy placintr 
in colandtT and pouring'- water over them rather than putting' 
them into a i)an of water. 

The followinir projioi't ion is rri'()miiien<l.d : two pounds of 
wlinli' tiri'ries two and onehair pounds (d' suirar oni- pint of 
beri'y juice. 

If the best ])ossih]e eoloi' and lhi\<»i' is to he secured for tin' 
finished product, the syrup for presei-ved herries should he nuide 
of berry juice, obtained by crushiiij,', heatin</ and straining the 
softer broken berries. Boil tog:ether the beiiy juice and the 
snjrar and skim and cook the syrup before droppinir the l)erries 
into it, to prevent shrivellinj,^ and tou,ijriieninj.r the fruit. Return 
to the fire and bring- slowly to a boil in a covered pan. Remove 
the cover and cook until the fruit looks clear, beinsr very care- 
ful not to overcook; the berries should remain whole. If a 
thermometer is used the cooking may be finished at 222° to 224° 
Fahrenheit. Skim and cool in a covered pan. If l)erry preserves 
are covered for five minutes before removing from the fire and 
the vessel left covered while cooling the jiroduct will be more 
plump. The fruit will be Ix^tter if allowed to cool in siiallow 
trays or pans and stand in the syrup over night : it im])r()ves the 
shape and fiavor, as the berries absorb more of the syrup, be- 
come heavier, and pack better. I^ift the berries out of the syrup 
carefully and pack cold, filling the sterilized jars w'ith berries be- 
fore ])ouriiig the syrup over them. A good pack ri^piires more 
])ei-ries than syrup. Cap, process pint jai's for ten nnnutes at 
180 Fahrenheit, seal, and store in a dark di-y place. 

Packing synij) for berries should have a density of .">() to 5.^ 
degrees Balling (see p. 12!)). 

Strawberry Preserves. — 

2 [loiiniis (if l)crrics i/, cup of liorry juice 

IV2 pounds of sugar 



PRESERVES 155 

Wash, cap, and stem the strawberries. Make a syrup of the 
sugar and juice and add the berries. Cook to 222° F'ahrenheit 
or 1051/0° Centigrade, or until the syrup is very thick. Cook 
quickly, pack into sterilized jars, and seal as for preserves. More 
of the natural tiavor is retained by using this method, and no 
syrup will be left over, which means a saving in sugar, but the 
yield is not so great and the fruit does not remain whole and 
plump as in the first method given above. 

Currant and Cherry Preserves. — White currants and cherries 
may be preserved by following the same directions given for 
strawberry preserves, except that in using a thermometer to de- 
termine the finishing point for cherry preserves the temperature 
should be run up to 226° Fahrenheit or 107° Centigrade. A 
heavier packing syrup is more necessary for sour cherries than 
for the sweet ones. 

Sun-cooked Preserves. — Cherries, currants, raspberries or 
strawberries alone, or a combination of two-thirds currants and 
one-third raspberries, may be cooked by this method. Dampness 
is a great foe to successful sun cookery. The berries should be 
washed, capped, stemmed, drained, and measured. Allow an 
equal weight of sugar for fruit. For each two pounds of berries 
measure one-fourth cupful of berry juice and heat with the 
sugar. Cook and pour over the whole berries in shallow trays. 
Stand in the sun for three or four days, bringing indoors each 
night. Allow the fruit to remain in the sun until it is well 
plumped and the syrup has thickened almost to a jelly. If the 
sun fails to shine, keep the preserves in a cool oven. 

Sour Orange Preserves. — The peel of the native sour orange, 
which is found in the southern part of the Gulf States, makes 
delightful preserves. Grate off evenly all yellow, cut the oranges 
into quarters, and peel. Soak the peel in salt water (one cup- 
ful of salt to one gallon of water) for two or three days, chang- 
ing the water twice daily. Cover with clear water and boil for 
ten minutes, drain, and repeat the boiling twice to remove all 
bitterness. When the peel is tender drop it into a heavy syrup 
(two cupfuls of sugar to two cupfuls of sweet orange juice) for 
each two pounds of peel, and cook rapidly until clear and trans- 



J-,; SlCrKSSFLl. CANMNi; AM) I'KI.SKILX INC 

|.;in'iit. Cool lu'forc j)a(■l<iIl^,^ p:ick into stcrili/.t'd jars, process 
pints for lirtcrii iiiiiiutt-s a1 ISO l-'alin-iilirit, si-al, and store. 
Preserved Whole Kumquals. — 

•J |iiiuii(ls of wlioK- kuin>|ii;its li |Miini(l-i of KUjrur 

( aftiT <iHikin^'-) I <niart of water 

Sci-iili tile kmiiquats with soap ami warm water, scald tiiem 
with hniliii^- soda water. usiiiL: a eii|»l'ul of soda to live (piarts 
of water. Allow fruit In stand in tln' soda hath until cool, 
di'ain and slit each kuiiHiuat with a shaiji-pointed knife to pre- 
vent thrill from hui'stinu' open whih- cookiu'j-. Di-op into hoiliiif^ 
water and cook for ten or lifteen minutes (until tender i. After 
this the .seeds can easily l)e removed. Hoil Ihe su<^'ar and water 
totrelher for ten nnnutes, add the dr-ained kimnpiats and eook 
until clear ami transparent. The fruit will keep its shape better 
if the eookin<2: is done in a covered pan. Carefully place the 
fr\iit into trays, pour the syrup over it and allow to remain over 
niu'ht to plump. I*aek the kumquats into sterilized jars, strain 
and i)Our the syrup over them, process i)int jars for fifteen 
•mimites at 180° Fahrenheit, and seal ti'-ihtly while hot. 

Kumquat Preserves. — 
1 |i(iiiii(l of ]<u!n(iuats % pound of .suj^ar 

1 pint of water 

The kuuKpiat pulj), which remains in the filter after the juice 
has been drained off for jelly, may be made into a preserve. The 
seeds should be removed when the fruit is first prepared for the 
jelly. Pass the pulp through a food chopper, Aveigh, and allow 
three-fourths pound of su^jar for each pound of i)ulp. Cook the 
water and pulp tojj^ether for twenty minutes, add the su^ar, and 
continue boilinfir rapidly until the mixtui'e Ix'comes britrht and 
clear and of proper consistency. If Satsuma orancre juice is 
used in place of water in these kumquat rt'cipes an even more 
delio-htful flavor may be obtained in the finished product. 

Preserved Peaches. — 

1 peek of peeled peaclios 3^2 pounds of brown sugar 

,3 j)intri of eider vinegar y^ ounee of nutmeg 

1 ounce of cloves 1 ounce of ciiniaiiion 



PRESERVES 157 

Peel the peaches and put them into a stone jar. Break up 
spices, scald, and then strew them through the peaches. Boil 
sugar and vinegar together for ten minutes and pour over the 
peaches while very hot. Repeat this for three consecutive days, 
then boil all together for ten minutes, cool, pack, and process. 

Plums may be preserved by the same method as for peaches 
but adding one pint less of vinegar. 

Preserved Pears. — 

1 pound of pears 1 cupful of water 

% pound of sugar 

Pears may be preserved whole, in halves, or quarters. Seckel 
pears are often preserved whole. If Keifer pears are used, they 
should boil in clear water after being pared until they can be 
easily pierced with a darning-needle. Then place them in the 
syrup, cook, cool, plump, pack, process, and seal the same as for 
all jjreserves. 

Ginger Pears. — Use hard or under-ripe pears, pare, core, and 
cut into very thin slices. To eight pounds of pears allow eight 
pounds of sugar, one cupful of water, juice of four lemons. Cut 
the lemon rinds into thin strips and add. Also add one-eighth 
pound of ginger root cut into pieces. Simmer until thick as 
marmalade. Pack like peach jam. 

Ginger Apples. — Hard varieties of apples are delicious when 
preserved by the method just outlined. 

Apple Preserves. — 

1 pound of apples 1 cupful of water 

1 pound of sugar Va lemon sliced thinly 

Whole crab apples, packed with or without the stems, make 
an attractive preserv^e. Pare, allow the apples to remain whole, 
and follow same directions given for plain preserved peaches. 

After the apples have plumped in the syrup over night it 
may be necessary to pour off the syrup and boil it for ten minutes, 
or until it is of the desired consistency. Strain the syrup and 
pour it over the apples, which have been carefully placed so that 
all stems will be upward. Process and seal as for all preserves. 

Large, firm apples, if used for preserves, are perhaps better 



i:,s SLCLKssi TL (.anmm; AM) rKi;si;ii\ iNd 

if |iiifrtl. coi-cd. and (luaitcrctl hcfon- cookiiifr in tin- synip. 'i'lio 
pariiifs and (•(ncs iiia\ In- hoilcd for lit'tfcii iiiiiiuli's in llif water 
and strained out l)el"iire llic sufTur is added to make the syiMip. 
'IMiis will add eoloi" and some jx'ctin 1o the presei'sinj,' syrup. 
i'ti'tm is the jelly-maUinf,' suhstanee t'oimd in some fruit juiees. 

Golden Pumpkin Chips. — iJemove the skin and seeds from a 
niedium-si/.ed pumpkin which has hem cut into ipiarters; then 
slice the pieces across, cuttiiej' each piece ;iliout one-(puil'ter 
inch thick. I'repare a syruj) as for pi-eser\ed a|)|»ies, alkiwinj,' 
1 hree-ipiarter jtound of su.i^ar to each pound of pumjjkin, and 
pi-oeeed hy the direetions <i'ivt'n in that I'eeipe. 

Preserved Watermelon Rind. — 

I |iouii(l of ini'Ioii rind 1 lemon 

1 pound of sugar 1 ounce of lime (CaO) 

2 quarts of water 

Cut the rind into one-inch squares, remove peel and all pink 
])art. and weiuh. Soak over ni<iht in lime water (one ounce of 
lime to two (juai'ts of water). The lime (calcinm o.xide) may be 
secured fi'om a drut,'' store. The following morning allow the 
rind to stand for two hours in clear water. Drain well, then 
dro]) into boilinu- water and boil rapidly for ten minutes. Drain 
again and add gradually to the syruj) (made by boiling together 
two eupfuls of sugar and one cpiart of water). Add to this the 
juice of one-half lemon and throe extra slices of lemon. Cook 
until the melon is tender and transparent. Allow to stand cov- 
ered with the syrup until cold, arrange the pieces attractively in 
the jars, garnishing with slices of lemon. Cover with the syrup 
testing 50 to 55 degrees. Process and seal (see p. 129). 

Gingered Watermelon Rind. — 

1 |)<iuiid of iiudon rind 1 ounce of ginger 

1 ' . , iKituids of sugar ^j lemon 

Follow the same method as for melon rind preserves until 
after the rind has been freshened in cold water. Then drain 
well and boil rapidly for fifteen minutes in strong ginger tea 
(one ounce of gingc^r to one (puirt of water). Finish cooking in 
a 30-degree syrup made by using two pints of the strained ginger 



PRESERVES 159 

tea with two pints of water and one and one-half pounds of 
sugar. Cook rapidly until tender and transparent (about one 
hour). After rind has boiled for one-half hour, add one-half 
lemon, cut into thin slices. Cook until rind is tender and trans- 
parent. Cool, pack, and process like preserves. 

Gingered watermelon rind, chopped finely, is excellent to com- 
bine witli canned sweet red pimientos for making the Spanish 
chutney (see p. 206). 

Preserved Figs. — 

G quarts of figs 1 cupful of baking soda 

4 pounds of sugar 6 quarts of boiling water 

3 quarts of water 

Select firm, sound fruit, discard all over-ripe or broken figs. 
Sprinkle one cupful of baking soda over the selected figs and 
cover with about six quarts of boiling water. Allow them to 
stand for fifteen minutes, drain off this soda solution, and rinse 
the figs well in clear, cold water. Let the figs drain while syrup 
is being prepared. Mix sugar and the three quarts of water, 
boil for ten minutes, and skim. Add well-drained figs gradu- 
ally so as not to cool the syrup. Cook rapidly until figs are clear 
and tender (about two hours). When the figs are transparent, 
lift them out carefully and place in shallow pans. If the syrup 
is not heavy enough (testing about 50 to 55 degrees with a sac- 
charometer), continue boiling until it reaches the desired density, 
then pour it over the figs, being careful to see that the fruit is 
entirely covered. Let stand over night. Next morning pack the 
figs cold in sterilized jars, having stems all the same length and 
placing the figs so that all stems will be upward. Fill each jar 
to overflowing with the syrup of 55 degrees density (p. 132). 
Cap, clamp, process, and seal immediately. 

Yellow Tomato Preserves. — 

4 pounds of fruit Vi ounce of ginger 

6 pounds of sugar ^2 lemon 

2 quarts of water Vs ounce of cinnamon 

Boil together water, sugar, lemon, and spices for fifteen 
minutes, or until 217° Fahrenheit is reached; add fruit gradu- 



1,;,) SL'CCKSSIL L ( .\.NM.N(; AM) riLKSKRNlNO 

ally iUid cook f^cntly until the fr'iiit lircotiics lu-iirlit and dear, 
stiiTirii: occasionally and hcin'/ cai-rrul ncil to allow it to burn. 
If a tlnTiiioiiirtci- is used, cook to "222^ Faiircnln-it . ]»oui- into 
tra\s. stand ovci- niLrlit, i)ack the tomatoes cold, and strain tlic 
syrup ovt'i" tlicni. Process as for other j)rcservcs. 

Small LTrceii or red tomatoes may he prcserviMl whole hy tins 
same method. 

Pineapple Preserves. — 

1 iiipiiiid iif fniit % pound of .su^^jir 

Peel, core, and slice the fruit, place alleinate layers of su'jar 
and fruit in a bowl and allow to stand over ni^hl. Next morn- 
ing,' drain off the syrup and boil it for ten minutes, add tliu fniit 
and continue cooking fifteen minutes, i-emove from the fire, 
skim and pack into jars, process i)int jars at 212 Falu-eidieit for 
fifteen miinites in a water-bath. 

Cherry Preserves. — 

4 pounds of cherries 1 rii])fiil of clierry jiiiee 

3 pounds of sugar 

j\Iake a synip of the sn^rar and fruit juice, cool, add seeded 
cherries, and cook rapidly until fruit is clear and syi-up is of 
the j)ro])er consistency. If a thermometer is used, finish cherry 
preserves at 1()()^ to 108° Centi<rrade, or 22:3= to 226^ F. Cool, 
pack into jars, and process as for other preserves. 

Cherries (Vinegarette). — 

4 jiouiids of sweet elierries 3 jxmiids of siijrar 

1 (|iiiirt of vinefiar 1 ciiiiful of clierry jui(^o 

Carefully remove the stones, place cherries in trays or pans, 
and cover with diluted vinegar (two cupfuls of water and one 
cui)ful of vinegar). Allo%v to stand over night, drain well next 
morning, and cover the four pounds of fruit with a heavy .syrup, 
made by boiling together three pounds of sugar and one cupful 
of cherry juice. Allow to stand in this syruj) in the sun for 
three or four days to plump. Pack into jars and strain the syi'up 
over them. Cherries i)reserved in this way are sometimes calletl 
homemade maraschino cherries. This product may be artificially 
colored with vegetable coloring iiudter, which can be .secured from 



PRESERVES 



161 



the dniijgist. A small amount of the colorincf should be added 
when the cherries are put in the heavy syrup. 

Candied Fruits. — Whole cherries, apricots, peaches, and pears 




Tig. 'J5.— a steam-jacketed preserving kettle. (Ik-inz Company.) 
Note use of thermometer and arm and ball weight valve to control steam pressure. 

in halves, sliced pineapples, and whole figs are often prepared in 
this way. It is a lengthy and tedious procedure. It calls for 
11 



l,;.j SrCCKSSFUL CANNING AND ritKSKIlVlNCJ 

sldw cndliiiiLr on the iiistaliiinit plan, and shallnw trays for 
lilunipinLr t lif fruit arc necessary. 

l-'irst, tile fruit- to he candied should he wasliod, peeled, or 
|iarcd. if necessary, cut or sliced and di"o|)pcd into hoilintr water 
for two III" three minutes. I )rain well, ci)\-ef with syi'up nia(h' by 
hoiliiiLT toLrether one pound of su^'ar for each pound of fruit with 
one cupful of water. Boil rapidly for lifteeii minutes, remove 
fi-om the lire, and allow to stand over nij,'ht. The next morning 
lioil for tell or lifteen minutes auMin, and repeat the heatiuLC and 
coolinu" for four to six days, aecordin<r to how i-apidly the water is 
ilrawn out and tliesyi'u|) is ahsoi-hed. The fruit jjluiiips slowly, 
and the .i^radual increase in tiie density of the syi'up caused hy 
the many cooking's in?nires tender fruit which is filled with syi'up. 
Aftei- the fruit is t raiisparcnl and ])ri'jht. lift it fr-oni the syruj) 
and dry in the sun or in a cool oven. 

Crystallized Fruit. — If a crystallized fruit is desired, use 
fruit prepared by the preceding- recipe. When the fruit is dry, 
cover it with a GO-degree syrup (see p. 132) and allow it to stand 
for two or three days; then drain oil' the syrup and dry the 
])ieces of fruit in the sun or in a cool oven. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant t)y i)rcscrved fruit? What is tlie .standard for sucli? 

2. What is tlie special problem in preserving? 

.3. Wiiat preliminary step is it wise to take when preserving liard fruits, 
as (juinees, hard pears, etc.? 

4. Wh\' sliould preserving l)e done over a tiot fire? What is tlie elTeet of 

slow cooking? 

5. Wliat is tile dillVrence Ijctween preserved, candied, and crystallized 

fruit? 
G. Describe a good saeeharonieter to use in jjreserving, stating its name, 
purpose, and method of use. 

7. How may a thermometer be used if no saccharometer were at hand ? 

8. Describe how eacli instrument may be used to determine when tlie linal 

point in cooking has been reached. 

9. When preserving, how will you decide how dense the syruji sliall be 

into which you jilace the fruit'.' 

10. Why should preserves be allowed to cool liefore packing? 

11. Wiien packed, at wliat temperature sliouid they be processed? What is 

tlie j>urpose of this processing? 

i5ir.LioGR.\riri' 

See Chapter Xlll, page 188. 



CHAPTER XII 

MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 

Marmalades, jams and conserves, when well made, always 
show a jelly-like appearance, thus denoting that there must be 
some pectin present in the fruit which is used. Pectin is the 
jelly-making property found in some fruit juices (see description 
under "Jelly Making," p. 174). Marmalades, jams and con- 
serves should be cooked very rapidly over a hot fire in order to 
retain the best flavor and a bright color. These are the most 
attractive features of the finished products. 

Marmalades. — If large fruits are made into marmalades they 
are thinly sliced and cooked in a clear syrup as in preserving. 
The finished product shows the fruit appearing in small pieces 
throughout the mixture, and it is smooth in consistency. 

When marmalades are made of citrus fruits, such as grape- 
fruit, orange, kumquat, and lemon, the pectin is found in the 
white inner skin ; none is present in the juice. The yield of the 
finished product of marmalades made by the three-day process is 
greater, but it is perhaps no clearer nor more jelly-like in con- 
sistency than that which is made in a single day. The pectin in 
the fruit is extracted by standing, heating, and reheating with 
the acid present. Cool marmalade to 176° Fahrenheit or 80° 
Centigrade before pouring into glasses or jars. This prevents 
the pieces from rising. 

Jams. — Whole small fruits are used in making jams, but the 
fruit does not remain whole in the preparation of jam. The 
syrup is bright and the mixture is alike throughout when the 
product is finished. Practically the same methods are followed 
in making jams of all berries. The ripe broken ones give a fine 
color and flavor, but one-half of the quantity of the berries se- 
lected for making jam should be slightly under-ripe ; this is 
necessary to give the jelly-like consistency to the finished prod- 

163 



I CI 



Sr( CKSSI'l h CANMNC AM) l'Ki;sKH\ I N( J 



net. Mni-c prctiii is usually |ii'csciit ill rai'r ri|ir nr uiiii<r rij»i' 
fruit lliaii ill |iriiiif i-i|)c fruit. ( '(Kikiiiir in small <|uaiititii's will 
also help to ri'taiii tlic color and tlavor. A iiiorc dclicatr flavor 
will he iv'taiiifd liy allowing tlircc-ciiiartcrs poiiiid of sujrar to 
oafli |)ouii(l of licrrirs than hy usin-j' an npial proportion l»y 
weight of cat'li. 

Jam should lie cooked rapidly in a porcchiin lined vessel and 
stii'fed with a wciodeii spoon or paddle. l-'reiiiient ly move the 
spoon across the eeiiler of the pan, lirst toward you and then from 
you. and around and across the pan, hciiiLr cai'eful 1o move llic 
mixture from the Wottom of it. Do not stir too I'apidly or Itcat 
the mi.xture. .\ ihei-moiiieter is useful in making- jams, cookiiit; 
to 222 Fahrenheit when linished. They will then irive the same 
test as for jelly: eool a small (piantity in a spoon, ami when it 
flakes ott' the side of the si)oon instead of comintr off in drops it is 
tinished, and should be removed from tlie fire immediately. Jams 
are thicker when cold tlian when hot, and care should he taken 
not to cook tliem too lon^'. 

P>y ju'ocessinu: jams in pints oi- small jars in the hot-wati-r 
l)ath for twenty to thirt\ minutes at ISO Fahrenheit the tlavor 
and the color are better preserved than when processed at boil- 
ini,'' temperatures or over. A perfect seal may be secured by 
tifrhtening the cap immediately at the end of the processing. 

Fruit butters and pastes are those products made from the 
edible portion of the fruit which has been passed through a sieve 
and which has had the excess of water driven off, by cooking, 
until its consistency is somewhat similar to the dairy product 
butter, but not quite as thick. The fruits used for the making 
of butters should be ripe, as immature or green fruit will notice- 
ably affect the flavor of the product, and the fruit must be sound, 
as any decayed portion of the fruit entering into the manufac- 
ture will affect the taste and is readily detected by chemists, 
the use of partly decayed fruit being in violation of the Federal 
and state food laws. In the process of making butters it is 
necessary that the edible portion be passed through a colander 
or a sieve of some description. The size of the mesh of the sieve 
will tend to atT'ect the texture of the finished product. Only a 



MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 165 

small amount of sugar is required, and most of the fruit butters 
have some spices added to them. The excess of water is driven 
off by cooking until the consistency is somewhat similar to the 
dairy butter. Fiiiit butters are generally used in the same 
manner as jams and marmalades. 

Fruit pastes and rolls are somewhat dryer than the butter 
and are used for sandwich fillings and often as a confectionery. 

Conserves. — Conserves are made either of small or large 
fruits, or both combined, with sometimes the addition of nuts and 
raisins. Rapid cooking and constant care are essential when 
making conserves. Nuts, when used, should be added five minutes 
before removing from the fire. 

MARMALADES 

Orange Marmalade. — 

S pounds of oranges IV2 pints of water 

3 lemons 3 pounds of sugar 

Wash, remove the peel and seeds, cutting one-half of the 
peel into very thin strips, and add it to the pulp and balance of 
the peel, which has first had the yellow portion grated off and 
has been passed through a food chopper with the pulp. Cover 
with water and let stand over aiight. Boil for ten minutes the 
next morning, allow to stand for twelve hours, add the sugar and 
again stand over night. Cook it rapidly the next morning until 
the jelly test can be obtained. This is indicated by the flaking 
and sheeting from the spoon. Cool to 176° Fahrenheit, pour 
into sterilized glasses, and seal with paraffin. 

Sour Orange. — 

1 pound of peeled -sour orange i/4 pound of peel removed 

1 quart of water fiom oranges 

'J, IVa pounds of sugar 

Wash the fruit, remove the peel in uniform sections, using 
only the portions which are free from blemishes. Cut the peel 
into as thin slices as possible, cover with water, and boil for ten 
minutes. Drain, cover with boiling water, and repeat the proc- 
ess four or five times to remove the bitter flavor. 



ICC, 



sr( (llSSl'l I, CWMNC AM) I 'liKS i:ii\ I N( I 



Wi'IltIi till- juil]*, slii'i, .iml jur cafli iioiiiid of oranj^'cs alliiw 
oiii' i|ii;ii-t (if wati'i- ami Imil iinlil \ci-y ti-ndi-r. Pour into a 
llaiiiifl jill\ -hair, jircss until no iiioi-r juii-i- can be ol)taincil, aii<l 
tillri- till' juice tlii-ou^rli anollirf dran llauncl j(dly-l>aj; without 
piTssiii;.'. Mrasuic and |)ouf tin' juicr into the kettle, add the; 
sliced iierj. and 1 ' •• jxMinds of siii^ai' I'oi- each pound of fruit 
taken, and lioil i-ajiidlx' until it I'caches tin- jelly point. 

Grapefruit. — Make this aeeoi-dini: to dii'cf-tions i^-ivi'u for sctur 
oran^'c inannalade, adding' three-ipiaitri- pound of sulmc to each 
pound of fruit, instead of one and one lialf pounds. 

Kumquat. — Clean the kuimpiats Avith a ])rush and water. 
Covei- theiu with scalding soda water (one-half cupful of .soda 
to one gallon of water) and allow them to stand for five minutes. 
Kinse in clear water, slice the fruit, and remove the .seeds. Re- 
move the centers from one-fourth of these slices, parboil them 
for three minutes. Place all except slices in a preserving kettle, 
and for each pound of pulp allow one quart of water. Cook 
until tender. Strain, measure, and add one pint of sugar for 
each pint of fruit juice. Add slices or circles of the rind and 
cook all together until the jelly stage is reached. Cool, pour 
into sterilized containers, and seal. The pulp and rind which 
remains may be made into a delicious jam. 

Combination (Orange, Grapefruit, and Lemon). — 
1 (trail;:!' 1 grapefruit 

1 Iciiioii 

Wash and shred the fruit, add three times the bulk of water, 
])oil for fifteen minutes, and let stand over night. Next morn- 
ing boil for ten minutes and let stand agaiiv When cold, meas- 
ure })int for pint of sugar and cook over a rapid fire until jelly 
stage is reache(^. 

Crab Apple. — Wash and core crab api)les and put them 
through a footl chopper. Place in a preserving kettle and add 
water, not quite covering the top layer of apples. Cook until 
tender. Weigh and add three-quarters of a pound of sugar to 
each pound of fruit. Cook until the jolly stage is reached ; pour 
into sterilized glasses, cool, and cover with i)araflin. 



MARilALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 16? 

JAMS 

Berry. — Wild berries may be used in all these recipes. The 
Eldorado is the best variety of blackberries and the Cuthbert is 
the best variety of raspberry for jam. Follow general directions 
for making jams of all berries (see p. 163). 

Grape. — Remove the grapes from the stems, wash and press 
the pulps from the skins. Boil the pulp until tender, and run it 
through a sieve to remove the seeds. Cook the hulls until tender 
in a small amount of water. Chop the tender skins, add the 
seedless pulp and weigh. To each pound of fruit allow one-half 
pound of sugar and cook together until the skins are tender. If 
sAveet varieties of grapes are used less sugar may be needed, while 
if the varieties are acid the proportion of sugar had better be 
increased to % pound of sugar for each pound of grapes. Sweet 
varieties of grapes with meaty skins which readily soften make a 
good jam when only ly^ pounds of sugar to 3 pounds of grapes 
are used. 226^ Fahrenheit will prove a satisfactory finishing- 
point if a thermometer is used. Pack hot and seal immediately. 
Spices may be added if desired. 

Fig Jam. — Select ripe figs, remove all stems, treat them with 
scalding soda solution, and rinse thoroughly as for preserving. 
Cook in quantities not larger than 3 pounds at one time. Allow 
1% pounds of sugar to each 3 pounds of figs. Add barely enough 
water to start the cooking (about one-half cupful), crush the figs, 
heat to boiling and add the sugar. Cook rapidly to 220° Fahren- 
heit. Pack and process like preserves (see pp. 150 and 151). 

Peach Jam. — 

1 inch of ginger root 1 sprig of mace 

2 pounds of peaches 1 pound of sugar 

l^ cupful of peach juice 2 teaspoonfuls of bark cinna- 
1 cracked peach seed men (broken in small pieces) 

14 teaspoonful of allspice 1 teaspoonful of cloves 

Tie spices into cheesecloth bags; cook all materials together 
until a temperature of 222° Fahrenheit is reached. Remove 
spice-bag. Pack hot and seal. 



liis SI (TKssia 1, ( awim; AM) IM! i;si;i;\ I Nc 

IJLTTKliS 

Apple Butter. — 

10 |i<>iiiuls (il appliH 2 tal)h'>|><H>iifuls of f.' r <» ii ii il 

•t piiiiiiils (if sii;;ar all.s|ii(-i- 

J. lalili •■^|ll•nIlf^lls (if ;,'i(>uii(l ;t talili'Hjtooiifuls (if jirouiij cin- 

(•lii\('s iiaiiKiti 
ti (Hiaits (if cider 

Wash, .slice, and \\ci>;li the apples. Put into a kcttli' with thi; 
cidci' and cook until the apples are very tendei". I'ass them 
thi'dULrh a sieve tt> i-einove the skins and seed. Add suirar and 
sj)i<'es to the pulp. Cook until the nia.ss is a.s tiiiek as desired, 
.stii'rinj^- l"i"e(piently to prevent l)urnin<;. I'our into sterilized 
erocks or jai's, and when cool e(»\-ei' with i)aral"lin. 

Peach Butter. — 

1 lju.sliL'l of jjcaclics 1 j,'alioii of pcacli juice 

5 pouiids of suj^ar 

Prepare the juice and allow it to stand until sliiriitly fer- 
mented. (Jonihine peaches, juice, su^'^ar, and one-hali" dozen peach 
kernels. Cook and pack as for apple butter. 

Grape Butter. — 

- iKiuuiU (if grapes 1 pound of sugar 

!-> cu]) of watt'i" 

Select ripe <:^rai)es, wash, crush and separate skins IVom pul]i, 
dis(«u'ding one-half of the skins. Steam or stew the i)ulp and 
juice until the seeds can be easily removed by pre.ssinir the soft 
pulp with juice through a colander. Cook the skins in the water 
until tender and cut into thin strips or chop. Add sugar to the 
I)ulp and juice and cook until thick and of a jelly-like consistency. 
Stir frequently while cooking to avoid hui'uing. Five minutes 
l)efore removing from the fire the softened chopped grape hulls 
may be added if desired. Pack hot into hot jars and seal 
immediately. 

Guava Butter. — Cook guavas until tender in just enough 
water to keep them from burning. Press through a strainei- to 
remove the seeds. Measure the pulp, and for each ipuiii of |)iilp 
allow three cupfuls of sugar; cook and pack hot as for apple 
butter (Fig. 96). 



]VIARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 1G9 

Lemon Butter. — Select four medium-sized lemons, scjueeze 
out the juice and grate the rind. To this add one-half pint of 
water, one pound of sugar, and three eggs which have been beaten 
together. Mix thoroughly and cook rapidly. After about five 
minutes add a tablespoonful of butter and continue the cooking 
until a consistency such as is required for apple butter is reached. 
Care must be taken to see that the product does not scorch. Pour 
into sterilized glasses, cover with paraffin, and set aside in a cool 
dark place. 

Peanut Butter, — 
2 quarts of Spanisli peanuts 2 ovuices of salt 

4 quarts of Virginia peanuts 

Roast the peanuts uniformly brown, grind, add the salt and 
grind twice again so as to have the salt well distributed through- 
out. Pack into small jars and sterilize twelve-ounce containers 
for one hour at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering) in a water-bath. 
If there is too much oil in the butter it will separate and the 
nuts will rise, leaving the oil in the bottom of the jars. The 
Spanish peanut contains a large amount of oil, therefore it is 
necessary to mix this variety with Virginia peanuts in the pro- 
portions given above. 

CONSERVES 

Rhubarb Conserve. — Wash the rhubarb, cut into small pieces, 
and allow for ever}^ three pounds of rhubarb three oranges, three 
pounds of sugar, three-quarters of a cupful of water, one pound of 
seeded raisins, and one-half pound of shelled pecans (if desired). 
Slice oranges, rind and all, wash raisins, and scald the nuts. Mix 
all together and boil over a low fire for about forty -five minutes. 
If a thennometer is used, cook to 104° Centigrade. Pour hot into 
jai's and seal at once. 

Medley Fruit Conserve. — 

2 pounds of peaches i/^ pound of apples 

2 pounds of quinces 3 lemons 

1% pounds of pears Sugar 

Wash the fruit, peel or pare, core, and stone the fruit ; pass it 
through a food chopper and weigh. To each pound of fruit allow 



-|;() SICCKSSI'MI, CANMNC .WD I'll I ;m;I;\ I MI 

tlir(M'-(|iiarfi'iN i>\' a poiiiid of siiLrar; put I'niit and siii-'ar in 
altcniiitc la\rrs in a Itnwl, ami lei stand o\<t riiu'lit. Next nntni- 
iiiLT place in the |insrrvinLr Ucltli: with tlir puljt nl" icrnoiis and 
(int'-liair tlir rind slicid in tliin strips, jioil nntil mixture heconics 
Very tliirk. ()iit' cup ol' scalded cliuppcd nuts may be added if 
d-sii'i'd, live minutes Ixdni'e rem(i\inu' li'imi the lire. Pack hot 
into hut sterilized jars and seal at once. 

Plum Conserve. — 

.'! jiiniiids nf l)iiMiM)ii pliiiiis 1 jiouiHi of sf('(li(l raisin.s 

(afU-r flitting) 1 (Haiigc 

I'j pi)UM(l.s of sii<rar 1 cup of slifllcd jpccaiis 

. I nice of 1 loinon 

Slice plums, oraiii,^' and Icnidn, add su<rar and cddk until thick 
and transpaivnt. Put nut.s into mi.xture five mirnites before 
i-emovin<? from the fire. If a thenuometer is used eook the 
eon.serve to 103^ Centig:rade. Pack hot into sterilized jai-s and 
seal immediately. Process: pint jars for thirty minutes at 18fP 
Fahi-enheit in a water-bath. 

Grape Conserve. — 

1 jiiiit jar caiiiu'cl grapes (1 1 orange ( slircdiled ) 
l)ound sugar to (i pounds 14 cup raisins 
grapes used in canning) 1 cup pecans 

% cup grape syrup 

Cook as for Damson plum conserve. 
Fig Conserve. — 

2 jionnds of fresii figs or 1% pounds of sugar 

1 quart of plain canned figs % cupful of pecans (slielied) 

] orange ''■> pound of raisins 

Cut all, except iiuts, into small |)i(>ces and e(H)k until thick 
and transparent (about one hour). Add nuts five minutes before 
removinf^ from stove. Pack and seal hot. Process as for plum 
conser\'e. 

FRUIT P.VSTES 

Fruit pastes are sometimes made for home use from the fruit 
jiul]) which is lid't after some of the clear juice ha.s been extracted 
from the fruit for jelly iiiakinjj. A product of delifrhtful flavor 
may be made by cond:)ininfr the pulji of difTerent kinds of fruits. 



MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 171 

Press the pulp through a sieve, measure, aud to each pound of 
cherry, plum, raspberry, strawberry, currant, or gooseberry pulp 
allow one pound of powdered sugar. Cook together over a low 
tire, carefully watching to prevent scorching', until it begins to 
thicken. Cooking the pulp in a double boiler for the last half 
hour of the cooking will aid in keeping the paste from burning. 
If the pulp is well boiled down it is more easily dried. ►Scalded 
and chopped nut kernels, crystallized orange peel, or preserved 
watermelon rind or citron can be cooked in the paste. Pour 
one-half inch layers of the rather solid mixture upon marble or 
glass slabs or platters which have been rubbed with salad oil. 
Place where a breeze or current of air will pass over it and allow 
to dry for two or three days. 

Cut the paste into one-inch squares, roll in granulated sugar, 
aud stand again in a draft for two or three days. Pack in tin 
boxes, glass jars, or paraffin-coated containers. If packed in 
layers, place a piece of parchment paper between the layers. 

Apricot, peach, apple, and quince pastes are made in the 
same manner, except the proportion of sugar may be reduced 
for the apple and quince, three-quartere of a pound of sugar 
being a fair allowance for each pound of pulp. These cubes of 
fruit paste make attractive garnishes for custards, fruit cock- 
tails, creams, cakes, etc. Different flavorings, such as vanilla, 
almond or peppermint, may be used in these pastes, and some- 
times harmless vegetable colors are stirred into the mass just as 
soon as it is removed from the fire. Almond flavor is fiue for 
peach paste. 

A fancy pack of bands of color might be arranged as in jelly 
packing, if several different fruit pastes are made at one time. 
When nearly dry (before cutting), put the different colors and 
flavors in alternate layers until four or five layers have been used. 
Press lightly and allow to stand for one hour in a draft. Cut into 
one-inch strips, cutting through all the layers, and dry again for 
one hour. 

Store as for other pastes. 

Fig Paste. — Treat the figs with a soda bath as for preserves 
(p. 159), rinse and cook until tender in fresh, clear boiling water. 



i;.) SrcCKSSI II. ( A.NMNC AND I'K I iMiKX I N( i 

l»r'aiii Well and put the litis lliroiiixli ii food choppci' ov i-iil> jmlp 
iln'ouirli a colaiuli'i'. Allow (»iii' poiiiKl nl" siijrar for cafh (piaii of 
pulp. Mix ami cnnk until it is a rat In-r solid mass. SpiTadwitli 

an oiled spatula on tlu' oili-d surl'a d' a llat dish, niarldc oi' jjlass 

slalt. aiul linisli di'siuL;- in the sun. Tlwcc or lour days will be 
rr(|uiii'd for dfyiiiL;. Tlic t rays should he hi-oiif;lit into the house 
each iiiLiht, and tlii-y should he |)roticlcd froiii both llyin<r and 
crawl iuir insects. When t horoiiiihly dry, i-oll, wrap, and pack as 
peach roll ( |). 172 ). 

Grape Paste or Fruit Roll. — 

•J |K)un(ls grape pulp V'l f""|iful preserved oran<,'e peel 

1 [)()und powdered sugar i/, cupful ])reserved f,'rape hulls 
% cupful cliopi)e(l pecan nuts or candied clierrics 

y^ cupful preserved citron or l^, dozen preserved liga 

giiiLrci'cd \\ atci lui'idii rind 

The pidp left J'rom ,nrape jelly may be pressed through a sieve 
and used as fresh <,n-ape pulp in making this paste. The finer the 
mesh of the sieve used the finer will be the texture of the finished 
jiroduet. Cook the pulp 15 to 20 miiuites to evaporate the exeess 
of water before adding the sugar. Boil sugar and juilp togetlier 
until very thick. Pour out on a flat oiled surface to diy. Allow 
to stand in a draft for 1 or 2 days, when the other ingredients 
should be firu'l.v chopped and well mixed. Then sprinkle over the 
paste aiul roll it tightly. Place the roll in a breeze again for 
several hours, dust with sugar, and when dried suf(icientl,v wraji 
and pack as other fruit pastes. (Jb()pi)ed nuts alone might be usi'd 
for filling this roll. Other combinations of dried fruits, such as 
raisins, dates, figs, currants, and apricots, are sonu'times used for 
filling. 

Quince Cheese. — Wash the fi-uit, cut into (piarters, remove 
oore, stem, and flower. Cook the ((uinces until very tender in 
wafer, drain and mib through a sieve. Measure and allow three- 
fpiarfers of a pound of sugar for eacli pound of pulp, and boil to- 
pether uJifil it is so thick that it will not ([uickly run together 
when a spoon or wooden paddle has passed through tlie mass. 
The pulp left from quince .I'ell.v can be pressed through a sieve 
and used as fresh pul]) in inakini;- this ])aste oi- ''Clieese." Pour 



MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES I73 

hot into liot stei*ilized ghisses and seal like jelly. This "quince 
cheese, ' ' when turned out of the glass, will hold the shape of the 
mould and may be sliced. 

Peach Roll. — Select ripe, soft peaches, remove the skins and 
stones, weigh the fruit and add one-fourth pound of sugar to 
each pound of fruit, place over the fire, and while cooking mash 
with a wooden spoon. When the fruit is very soft, rub it through 
a colander to insure that no hard lumps remain. Continue the 
cooking until a heavy consistency is reached. Remove from the 
pan, spread on a smooth board which has been greased, place in 
the snn and cover with cheesecloth to keep off insects. When it is 
dry, sprinkle with granulated sugar, roll it up and wrap tightly 
in a cloth. It will keep for a long period of time. 

Green Tomato Mince Meat. — 

1 peck of green tomatoes 2 tablespoonfuls of ground cin- 
2% pounds of brown sugar nanion 

2 pounds of raisins 1 teaspoonful of ground cloves 

1 pound of beef suet 2 teaspoonfuls of nutmeg 

Mi cupful of vinegar 2 cupfuls of chopped apples (if 

2 tablespoonfuls of salt desired) 

Slice the tomatoes thinly, or put them through a food chopper, 
allow to drain, cover with cold water, place over the fire, and 
boil for five minutes. Drain well, add suet, vinegar, fruit, and 
seasoning, return to the fire and allow to simmer for from thirty 
to forty-five minutes. Pack hot and process as for preserves. 

Grape Mince Meat. — 

1 quart of pulp, juice and hulls 1 quart of chopped applies (if 

1 pound of sugar desired) 

1 grated nutmeg 1 lemon. 

Crush the grapes, separate the pulps and skins. Cover the 
hulls with water and boil until tender. By this time the added 
water wnll have mostly evaporated. Run the hulls through a 
meat grinder or chop them finely. Steam the pulps until soft and 
rub through a sieve to remove seeds. Mix seedless pulp and juice 



171 srccESSFi'i. cANMNc AM) n;i:si;ii\ I N(; 

with tlio rlioppcd tender skins, siij^ar, initnie^' and apiil.s. (Irate 
olV otic-liair tlir yt'llow (jutsidr rind of the li'iiioii and thinly slii-i- 
the rmiaindrr ul" it. Adil slices of Iniion to the mixture and eook 
all toLTrther until it is ot" a smooth and thick eunsistency. I'ack 
hot into stci'ili/cd jars and seal iiniiiediatejy. 

This is an appeti/inir sauee sinular to cons<'rves, but a less 
expensive product. The a[)ples may he omitted wlien makiiiLr the 
mince meat and l)e added at the time it is used. The texture of 
the pr(Kluct is somewhat better whi'ii the api)les ai'e ineluded. 

QUESTIONS 

1. State tlip ponornl standard for marmalades and tlio care nocessary to 

secure each oliaracteristic. 

2. Wliere is pectin found in the citrus fruits? How can ft ho extracted? 

How can tiie pieces in a citrus marmalade be prevented from rising? 

3. From what arc jams made? State the standard for jams and the care 

necessary to secure each ehai-acteristic. 

4. Describe the care necessary while the jam is cookinfj. What caution is 

it wise to keep in mind while stirring jams? Describe carefully the 
method for testing marmalades and jams. 

5. T'nder what conditions would you choose to make a conserve rather than 

a marmalade or jam? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See Chapter XIII, page 188. 



CHAPTER XIII 

JELLY MAKING 

Description. — Jellies are made by cooking together certain 
fniit juices and sugar in the proper proportions. A^ood glass 
of jelly is. clear, spai"kling, transparent, and of a beautiful color. 
When slipped out_ofJhe glass, it hoUls its form and will , quiver. _. 
It can be cut with a clean, distinct cleavage, retaining the clear 
surface and angles made by the knife. Tenderness and firmness 
are unmistakable qualities. The aroma and delectable flavor of 
a good jelly recalls the T^eauty and fragrance of an orchard 
or a vineyard. There are two types of jelly — the fiiiit, jelly, 
that is made from the natural fruit juices which contain sufficient 
pectin for making good jelly, and the pectin-base jelly, which 
is usually artificially colored and has the addition of some 
flavoring. ]\Iany advocate the natural- fruit jelly in preference 
to the pectin-base, tinted and flavored with rose, mint, and 
other such flavors, because they consider the pure natural-fruit 
jelly more artistic. 

If the resulting mass is syrupy and sticky or tough and 
gummy, it fails to meet the requirements for a jelly. 

Pectin, the Properties Necessary for Jelly Making. — Pectin 
is the essential jelly-making substance found in fruit juices. A 
combination in fruit juices of pectin, acid, and sugar in the 
proper proportions is essential in order to make good jelly. The 
best fruits for jelly making are those which contain both acid 
and pectin. The pectin, the fundamental jelly-making quality, 
does not exist in all fruits, and it is more abundant in slightly 
under-ripe fruit than in that which is fully ripe. As the fruit 
ripens, it becomes sweeter and it is believed that the pectin, 
which is a carbohydrate, is changed by the heat of the sun into 
a fruit sugar. Therefore, fruits which are not over-ripe are 
most satisfactory for jelly-making. Apples, currants, goose- 
berries, grapes, and oranges are fruits most commonly used for 

175 



\:('> 



srccKssFL'i. canmm; and i'i;i.si:i;\ im. 



J('ll\- iiiakinu'. Sitiiic t'niils rii-li in |M'ctiii dn not coiiliiiii ai'i<l 
and will ni)t niakr .JcIIn iinli'ss an acid is added. Tlir i)iiiliee 
and i:na\a arc examples (tf this, .lellics may l»e made from 
sncli fruits as elierries. |)ineai)|)les, rlnil)arlt. strawlx-rrics. and 
praclics if the ncccssai-y |>ectin is adih'd. Tcctin can he ex- 
tracted from Ihe white pai't of the oi'aii. ire -peel and added to 
these juices. Therefore, a very satisfaetory jelly can he made 



I'u.. %. 



Fio 97. 




Fig. 96. — A commercial jelly strainer placed on a chair hack. 
Fig. 97. — A commercial jelly strainer placed on a table. 

obtaining the flavor and color of fruits which do not contain 
sufficient pectin to make good jelly. If half the frnit selected 
is ripe fruit and the other half slight l\- under-ripe, the ripe 
I'ruil w ill funiisli the fine flavor and color, while the under-ripe 
fruit will contain the jellying property and give a better con- 
sistency to the finish(Hl ]n'oduct. 

Extracting the Juice. — 'I'll is is easily done by applying heat. 
Fruit juice flows more readily when the fruit is heated than 
when the fruit is simply crushed. Heating is neeessaiy also 



JELLY MAKING 



177 



to develop the pectin in the fruit. Sometimes when no pectin 
is found in the raw pressed juice of certain fruits, juices cooked 
out of the same fruit will show a large amount of it. Addition 
of acid before cooking will also help to bring out the pectin. 




Fig. 99. — Testing fruit juice for pectin. 

The quince is an example of fruit which often requires an acid 
to be added. 

Juicy fruits should first be crushed and have only enough 
water added to allow the fruit to cook until tender. Less juicy 
fruit, of which the apple is a type, requires more water. For 

12 



Kti 



SLClKSSI'l L I ANMNc; AND I'|;1>1:K\ I Nti 



r^ 



ei 



it-^ 



Ctt^ 



2 0^W 



l,0=rV 



a^E-v 



16— 'W 




ISO—- 




ViQ. 100. — A sapcharomptor 
floating in a 250-c.c. cylinder. 



tacli |miiii(| (»r apples use two pints of 
water and i-(M>k until the pieces ai-e very 

liMuler. 

S(jn<'e/.e tilt' (MKiked ffiiit in a moist- 
ened doillile elleesi eldtll In extfae] t lie 
juiee, and then strain tin; juiee liii'on'ili 
a llannel nv liaii'cldtli .ielly-l)aj? which has 
first Ir'C'ii dii)pt'd into hoiliiij; water. By 
squeezing the pulp before letting; the juice 
stand to drip tliroutrh the jelly-ba«,' more 
juice is obtained from the first drip|)inf^. 
Frequently the I'l-nit .juices may be ex- 
tracted a second time by afldinu-- water to 
tlie pulj) and rec^oUiiiLT it. The second 
extraction is weaker in pectin aind will 
require less sugar than the fii'st extraction 
(Fig.s. f)(5 and !)7K 

Test the juice for pectin and find 
whether tliere is considerable pectin 
present, i'our into a ulass one table- 
spoonful of the fruit juiee and add to it 
the .same amount of grain alcohol (95 per 
cent pure), mix by turning the glass 
gently, then pour carefully into another 
glass. If the pectin precipitates in a solid 
mass or clot, it is usually safe to add a 
cupful of sugar to each cup of juice in 
making jelly (Figs. 98 and 99). 

If the pectin does not collect in this 
manner, the amount of sugar should be 
decreased. The most usual mistake made 
in jelly making is the addition of too 
much sugar, the result being a syrup 
instead of a jelly. This test for tlie pres- 
ence of pectin in fruit juice is not an 
accurate quantitative test, but simply 
indicates whether little or mueli jXH-tin 



JELLY MAKING 



179 



is present. Different juices contain varying proportions of pec- 
tin, so one can readily see what a risk is taken when equal 
volumes of sugar and fruit juices are cooked together to make 
jelly, using the same rule for every sort of fruit. If the pectin 
test shows a small amount of pectin, only half the volume of 
sugar should be used to each volume of fruit juice. Sometimes 
a saccharometer is used to determine the percentage of fruit 
solids present in the fruit juice and to determine from the read- 
ing the amount of sugar necessary to combine with a given 
quantity of juice to make good jelly (Fig. 100). Consider 
apple juice first after the juice has been extracted from the 
fruit by crushing, heating, and straining; cool it to room tem- 
perature. Pour some of the juice into a slender cylinder which 
is deep enough to float the Brix or Balling spindle. Read the 
figure on the spindle which appears at the surface of the juice, 
and if, for example, the reading is 8 on the spindle, then thirteen 
ounces of sugar will be the proper proportion of sugar to 
combine with each quart of juice to make a good jelly. 

The following table may be used when testing apple juice 
with a spindle to determine the amount of solids in the solution 
and the amount of sugar necessary to combine with it to make 
a jelly. Cool to room temperature before taking the reading: 



Reading of 
Brix at 20° 
Centigrade 


For each quart of juice add 
sugar 


Pounds 


Ounces 

8 

9 

9.6 
10.7 
11.6 
12.4 
13.2 
14.1 
15.0 
15.8 
.7 


5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.5 
7.0 
7.5 
8.0 
8.5 
9.0 
9.5 
10.0 


'] 


l' 



This table is arranged for juices which have a temperature 
of 20° Centigrade or 68° Fahrenheit. The juices should never 



380 



SLCCKSSM L CANMNi; am, J'RKSKKVI N(i 



w 




Fig. 101— JellometiT for testing fruit juices in Jpllj- making. 



JELLY ]SL\KING 181 

be tested immediately ui)oii straining, unless they have cooled 
to room temperature. 

As already stated, in making jellies more failures result a-om 
addition of too much sugar to the juice than for all other causes, 
and if the amount of sugar can be determined success is almost 
sure. Doctor Straughn has constructed tables like the above, 
which indicate the amount of sugar to be added to juices when 
their density is known, and this density can be determined by 
means of the Brix spindle or saccharometer. The use of the 
Brix spindle correctly necessitates the use of the table con- 
structed for this purpose to transfer the Brix percentage density 
reading into the amount of sugar needed. This method has now 
been simplified by Doctor Straughn, who has devised an instru- 
ment, called a jellometer, with direct readings in ounces of 
sugar to be used for each (piart of the juice, thus doing away 
with the tables (Fig. 101). To use the jellometer it is only 
necessary to Hoat it in the fruit juice, which has been cooled to 
room temperature. The point at which it floats indicates the 
number of ounces of sugar to be added for each pint of juice. 

Quantity of Juice Cooked at One Time. — No difficulty should 
be found in handling eight or ten glasses at one time if every- 
thing for the complete process is .conveniently arranged before 
cooking is begun. The capacity of the kettle should be four 
times as great as the quantity of juice cooked. 

When to Add the Sugar. — The time for adding sugar is of 
importance even if the sugar has been properly proportioned 
to the juice in the beginning. There is no single trick to per- 
form that will assure perfect results in jelly making, but a good, 
uniform product may easily be obtained by carefully following 
the general principles of jelly making which are outlined. The 
old method required that the sugar be added in the beginning 
of the process. The longer sugar is boiled with a weak acid, 
such as we have in fruit juice suitable for making jelly, the 
more the sugar is split or inverted into simple sugars, and the 
longer this goes on the less danger there will be in having the 
sugar crystallize out. Another method is that of cooking the 
juice and adding the sugar near the end of the process. The 



1.^3 



RCCCKSSKL'L CANMNC AND I'K KSKUX 1 NO 



lalti-r iii.t lidii, liuucvfi-, is not so .t,'oO(l jis llic (irst, since, if tlie 
siiLMi' tlois not all dissolve and mix llioroii^'lily with tin- fruit 
.juice, some of tlie suuMi' used is liUely to eiAstalli/e out. After 
the .jeil.v stands for a while these ei-ystals may he seen through- 
out the .iell.\-. Midway helweeu these extremes \V(> mi^dit choose 
a h;i|i|i.\ iiiedium li.\- aihlinir the suj;ar .just as soon as the juiee 
lioils. .\lthoiiL;li aildim: cold suL:;ir to the hot juice stoi)S the 
cookinu' li.\' a ])artial eoolinii' of the .juice, there is no real virtue 




Kii;. U)2 — Making strawberry and orance pectin jelly, Walton Count.N', Florida. A. 
Grating yellow peel, B. Straining juice. C. Passing white part llirougli f<jod chopper. 
U. Tesling for finished jelly. E. Pouring jelly into glasses. 



in lieatini:- \\\e suiiar. The i)r()lon;^'ation of the cookini:'. if there 
is an.\'. is less li'oiilile than heating the suLiar when there is no 
a|)i)recial)le L;ain. 

Cooking the Jelly. — When the proper amount of sn.urar is 
determined, allow the .juice to ])oil hefore adding: it (Fi«r. 102). 
Clarify the .juiee by skimming- it hefore the addition of sutrar. 
Add the sugar graduall.v to the boiling .iuiee, stirring until it is 
all dissolved. Cook very rapidly to keep the .jelly a bright color 
and tile produet clear. Skimming the .juice after the sugar is 
added is not a good practice from an economical stand|)oint. 



JELLY MAKING 



183 



A thermometer will aid greatly in jelly making?. If placed 
in the cooking juice it will indicate the approach of the jelly 
stage, and the cooking juice will not need to be watched very 
closely until the temperature of 216° to 217° Fahrenheit or 
102° to 103° Centigrade is reached. After this the juice cooks 
very rapidly and requires constant w^atching. The juice for jelly 
should not be allowed to simmer. All jellies should be made as 
quickly as possible when once the cooking has begun. By long 




FiG. 103. — First test shows drops of syrup. 




Fig. 104. — Finished test shows jelly flaking or sheeting from the paddle. 

cooking, the acid affects the pectin in such a way as to cause it to 
lose some of its jelly-making power. Long cooking also has the 
tendency to make the finished product dull and darker than jelly 
w^hicli has been cooked rapidly over a hot fire. 

Test the juice to determine w^hen the jelly is finished. Take 
a small amount of juice in a spoon and cool it by gently moving 
it in the air for a few seconds and allow it to drop from the side 
of the spoon or wooden paddle. At first it will just run off as 



isi succKssinr, cwMxc wn i'i:i;sKi:\iNf; 

a s\rn|i ; tlirii. as it cooks, llic drops will li»'<-oiiir heavier, and 
■aIicii till' drops I'liii loiTftlifr and slidr olT in a tlakf or sheet 
from the side ol' the spotin, leaving; the edjre ek-an. the jplly is 
tinished and shonid he retnovod from the tire at oiiee (Fitrs. 1<>;{ 
and 104). Skiinmin^'- while eookinj; thr jiiii-r is wa.stofnl. He 
careful not to hieak the scum while testiii'j- the juice for the jolly 
st;i<,'e. Aftei' a L'ood jelly test is ohtainod and the vessel is re- 
moved from Ihe lire the scum may he i-emoved all at one time be- 
foi-e i)oni-inu" the jelly into the containers. It is very neeessarv at 
this point to keep a cool head and work rapidly so that the jelly 
will not have time to cool in the i)an. 

Pouring the Jelly into the Glasses. — Jelly should ])e poured, 
while hot. into liot stci'ili/.ed tilasses. l^'iJl the trlasses fidl. Little 
1)ul)l)les collect on the sui-face, and these can he removed in a 
teaspoon by runnin<i: it around the top of the jelly. If possible, 
allow the jelly to stand in the sun as it cools. When it is tirm 
the jelly will have shrunken, leaviiiu- a space for melted paraffin. 
Pour a layer of melted i)aranin over the top to seal it from the 
air {V'lii. lO;")). The paraffin will run down aloui; the ed<re and 
.stick more securely if a small wooden stick is carefully run 
around tlie vdiso of the jelly aftei" paraflin is i)oun'd on. If the 
paraffin runs down ])etween the jelly and the glass for about 
one-fourth inch it will not be so (»asily slipped away from the 
jelly as it is when simj)ly poured over the top in a thin layer. 
Another ^vay to ])i-otect the jelly is sometimes used. A circle of 
paper is cut to lit into the glass, then dipped into grain alcohol 
or brandy and placed ov?r the jelly. The alcohol or brandy 
serves, as does the hot paraffin, to kill any mold that might have 
ili-opped on top of the jelly as it stood to cool. 

Covering the Glass. — Covering the glass is necessary after 
the paraflin or the dip})ed paj)er circle is placed on top of the 
jelly. Tie paper down tightly around the edge of the glass or 
put a tiirhtly fitting cover over it. 

Labelling. — Place small, neatly ])rintcd labels half way be 
tweeii the seams of the glass and near the 1ow(m- edgi'. The label 
should be no larger than necessary to print the refpiired in- 
formation if the jelly is to be sold. Too muck of the product 



JELLY MAKING 



isr) 



is hidden when a large label is used. Generally it is not attractive 
to use brightly colored labels, because they detract from the color 
of the product. 

Storing Jellies (Fig. 106).— A bright light will cause jellies 
to fade in color and also cause them to "weep"; that is, leak 
out and spoil the label. Keep them in a cool, dark, dry place. 




Fio. 105. — A coffee-pot is a convenient utensil for melting and pouring the paraffin. 



If a tender jelly is handled or allowed to stand for several 
months in a jar which is not hermetically sealed, it is very apt 
to "weep." To prevent this weeping, commercial concerns her- 
metically seal their jelly jars. By using the crimped crown 
cap and the hand-sealing machine illustrated in the chapter on 
"Fruit Juices" (p. 102) jelly glasses may easily be sealed air- 
tight. When the jelly is to be sealed in this manner it should 
first be allowed to cool and then have a thin layer of melted 



ist; siccKssi ri. (•.\NMN(; and I'|[i:si;i:\ in(; 

paralVm or a cir'rle of [lapiT wliidi lias lirco flipped into prain 
alcohol jiiaccd dvcr t lie top hrforr ci'iiiipiiij^ (»ii t hr cap. 

Fancy Packs. — Fancy packs of jelly may Ix; made l)y packint^ 
two or three jellies of dilTerent flavors and colors in one plass. 
It is necessary to allow the first layer t« cool before adding th(! 
second, and so on. Apple juice or oran^'e i)ectin may he used for 
a hasc and liaxc the dilVerent flavors and colors added. For 
instance, jelly can he made of cherry, pineapj)le, strawberry, 
rliuhai"l>. and othei- fruits by addiiiu'' the necessary pectin in the 
Tonu of apple juice or oran^^e pectin. A mint jelly may t)e made 
by eolorinfj either apple or oraiif^e pectin jelly preen "".vith a 
vegetable coloring matter and Havorinp it with the fresh mint 
or a very few drojis of spirits of peppeniiint. 

Fancy Jellies. — Fancy jellies can be made from non-pectin 
fruits ami other materials by usinp a ix'ctin i)reparation made 
from the oranpe or aj)ple and combiniup this with strawberry 
or other iu)n-pectin fruits or with mint ami other flavors. The 
non-pectin fruits, it will be recalled, include cherries, pineapples, 
rhubarb, and peaches. Tlie use of one-ludf of the orange or 
api)le pectin prej)ared as below, and one-lialf of a non-pectin 
fruit, will pive satisfactory results, providing a jelly witli tlie 
color and flavor of some desired fruit, although the latter will 
not of itself nuike jelly. The preparation of orange pectin is 
described and a couple of sample recipes for these fancy jellies 
are given. 

Preparation of Orange Pectin. — 

'/i; pound (if white portion or- 3 tal)iespoonfiil.s of lemon juice 

ange-peel fi cupfuls of cold water 

Scrape or grate the yellow from the peel of the orange. 
Remove the remaining white portion and pass it through a food 
chopper. Weigh, and for each half pound allow three cupfuls 
of cold water and one tablespoonful of lemon juice for each cup 
of water. Mix thoroughly, allow to stand for four or five hours, 
then boil for ten minutes, and cool. Add another three cupfuls 
of cold water. Bring to a boil and let stand over night. Next 
morning boil for five minutes, allow to cool, place in a 5aunel 




FiQ. 106 — A few good glasses of jelly ready to store. 




Fio 107 Students of the State Normal School at Framingham, Massachusetts, preparing 

to become community leaders in the food conservation campaign of 1917. 



JELLY MAKING 187 

jelly-bag, squeeze it to remove all the juice, and then filter the 
juice through a clean flannel jelly-bag without pressing it. 

This pectin may be used as a foundation in making jellies 
from i'ruit juices which do not contain a sufficient amount of 
pectin. If the pectin is to be kept for use later, pour it into 
sterilized jars while hot, process quart jars in a water-bath at 
simmering (180° Fahrenheit) for thirty minutes; seal and store 
in a dark place. 

Strawberry and Orange Pectin Jelly. — 

1 cupful of orange pectin 1 cupful of strawberry juice 

1 cupful of sugar 

Mix the pectin with the berry juice and bring it to boiling, 
add the sugar, and continue boiling until the jelly stage is 
reached. This finishing point is indicated by the flaking and 
sheeting from the spoon. Skim after removing jelly from the 
fire ; pour immediately into hot sterilized jelly glasses. Cool and 
cover with melted paraffin. 

Mint Jelly. — 

i pint of orange or apple pectin 2 drops of oil of peppermint 

1 pint of sugar 2 drops of green vegetable col- 

oring 

Heat the pectin to boiling, add the sugar gradually, and con- 
tinue boiling until the jelly will flake from the side of a spoon. 
At this point add carefully two drops of oil of peppermint, to- 
gether with the two drops of green vegetable coloring matter. 
(This Vegetable coloring may be obtained from a drug store.) 
Stir gently and pour while hot into sterilized glasses. After a 
few moments the scum which rises to the top may be easily re- 
moved from the jelly with a teaspoon. When cold^ pour hot 
paraffin over it. Place sterilized lids over the jelly glasses or tie 
a circle of white paper over each. 

Equal parts of pectin and non-pectin fruit juices combined, 
using the same amount of sugar as pectin, will usually be the 
proper proportion to use, when a flavor and color of non-pectin 
fruit are desired in jelly. 



|,SS SlCCKSSKll. IANNIN(; AM) I'liliSKKN 1 N(; 

l.)li:sil()NS 

I. Stall' III \inir i)«ii wufiU till' ^liiiiilanl for jelly. 
•J. W liat do tin- lM■•^l jells iiiiikin;; fniit^ coiitJiin'' 

.'(. \\ luit is till- cliiirai'tcr df iicclin? What i-^ tli<- circoi of tin- li<at of the 
•Sim u|ioii it' What cirfct has loiif,' cookiiij,' ii|)(jii it? 

•I. Dcsfi ilic how to test a fruit juiee for the a|i|)r<i\iinate uiiioiiiit of [leetin 
prociit. 

fi. What is the usual mistake in j<lly iiiakinj;? How can tliis he avoiiU'd' 

(i. Iluw should jcllii- III' conked'.' Why is this newssury? 

7. Descrilie how to determine when the jolly has cooked snilicieiit ly. 

s. What is a satisfactory method of acalinj; ji lly V In what kind of a 
j)lace should it he stored? 

.. I 

BIMLKMJHAPHV 

1. HiiowN. ('. A.. .Iii., " A Chemical Stuily of the Apjiie and Its I'rodurts," 

r.iillctin .">S. PI). 4<>, IS'i!). Ajrri( iilture. State C'ollefje, Pennsylvania. 

2. C'Ai.DWKLL. .1. S., " A New Method for tlie Preparation of Pectin," PUT, 

Bulletin No. 147, Stiite tollejie, Pullman, Washin^'ton. 
:i. ("KiKss. W. v.. AM) McNair, J. K., "Jelly Invest i<rations,' .lournal of 

Industrial ami Engineerincf Chemistry," vol. 8, pp. 417-421, 1916. 
4. Fox. .Mi.NME v., •• Blue (Jra.ss Cook Book," 1!K)4. Puldished hy Fox, 

DufTield & Co.. New York City, N. Y. $1..)0. 
;■). Gouniiw.MiK, X. I',.. " Principles of .Icily Makin<r, ' Food Series No. 3. 

vol. 1, No. 1."), Cornell Reading Courses, May. 1!112. Published by 

New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. 
C). CJoLDTinvAiTB, N. E., "Chemistry and Physics of Jelly Making-,"' article 

published by the Journal of IndustriaJ and Engineering Chemistry, 

vol. 1, pp. 33.V.344. June, 1009; vol. 2, pp. 4.')7 to 402. Noveinljer. 

1910, American Chemical Society, Faston, Pa. $0 per year. 

7. CoLDTiiWAiTi:, N. F., "Principles <if .Idly Making." I'.ulletin Xo. ."il. 

University of Illinois. Urbana, III. 

8. Harri.s. Aci.NES J]llex, "Jellies, Preserves, and Marmalades." Fxten- 

sion Bulletin No. 3. Published by State College for Woman, Talla- 
hassee, Fla. 

9. McKiMMOX, Jane S., " Strawberry, Blackberry, and Raspberry Jam," 

North Carolina Canning Club Recipes. Publis.ied by State College 
of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C. 
10. Sxow, Je.n.ny H., " FfTect of Sugar and Temperature on Fruit Juices," 
■Journal of Home Economics, vol. 1, pp. 2r)l-2(<(i. lOO'.t. 

II. Farmers' Bulletin No. 900, "Homemade Fruit Butters '; Farmers' Bul- 

letin, No. 758, " Muscadine Grape Syrup "; Farmers' Bulletin No. 859, 
" Home Preservation of Muscadine C'rapes." U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington. I). C. 



CHAPTER XIV 

PICKLING 

The preservation of food with salt or vinegar, either with or 
without the addition of spices or sugar, is commonly known as 
pickling. The predominating flavor determines the kind of pickle 
— sour pickle, sweet pickle, or spiced pickle. Green and slightly 
unripe fruits and vegetables are generally used for pickling. A 
great variety of vegetables and fruits may be kept by this method. 
Among the most common vegetables which are pickled are cucum- 
bers, tomatoes, beets, onions, carrots, martynias, artichokes, cab- 
bage, and chayotes.^ 

The method of grating horseradish or putting it through a 
food chopper and combining it with sufficient vinegar to moisten 
it is one of the simplest types of pickling. Some vegetables give 
better results if they are soaked in salt water over night or until 
thoroughly cured. This makes the tissue firmer and extracts' 
water from it. Some fruits and vegetables require this special 
treatment, while others need only to be parboiled in salt water. 
By either of these methods the tissues are better prepared to 
absorb the flavored vinegar or syrup. 

Utensils to Use in Pickle Making. — Only porcelain-lined or 
granite-wear kettles should be used when cooking pickles. Acid 
will attack metal utensils and they should not be used. A granite 
or wooden spoon should be used for stirring. A perforated agate 
ladle is a convenient utensil for lifting the pieces of pickle from 
the kettle. Finished pickles should be packed into sterilized jars 
or crocks. 

Sweet Pickles. — Among the fruits especially good for sweet 
pickles are peaches, apples, plums, watermelon and cantaloupe 
rinds, cherries, grapes, gooseberries, figs, and pears. 

iThe chayote {Chayota edulis) is rather a comparatively new vegetable. 
It is a climbing vine, resembling the cucumber in growth, although it is 
much more vigorous and prolific. The fruit is pear-shaped and somewhat 
corrugated, with a single flat seed. jog 



i;((i srccKssri I, ( ANMNc AND I'l; 1 >i ;i:\ I N( ; 

Mixed Pickles. — .Mixinl pickles arc made I'l-oiii various coiuhi- 
iiatiniis (if siiili \-cj,n'talilcs as bcaiis, fHulillowcr, (tiiioiis, small oars 
(tf corn (two ()!• Ilircc inches in l('n<;lli), cticiimhers, and cab])a{^<'. 

Relishes. — I'ickles consisting; of finely, evenly chopped vet,'e- 
tal)lcs are known as relislies; Chile sauee, ehow-ehow, and piea- 
liiii are ol'ten so classified. 

Chutney. — Chutney is a hot sweet pickle orifrinated in India. 
There are a number of other condiments made in many ^vays 
that belong' to this class of pickle. Chutncys are of Oriental 
orijjrin. They ai'e sei-ved with curries, cold meats, sausapo, and 
stews. 

Mangoes. — The mango is a i'niit believed to be a native of 
southern Asia, but it is now grown in nearly all sub-tropieal 
countries. In addition to use as a fresh fruit, numgo forms the 
basis of most chutneys of East India type and is also canned and 
other wise pi-esei-ved. The mango melon is a small round nu-lon 
with yellow skin and white flesh. It is cultivated ehiefiy for 
domestic mango pickling and i)reserving. Often stiuiU green 
melons, burr gherkins, and i)ei)pers are stuffed and pickled. 
The term "JNIango" is popularly used for stufTod pickles. 

Ketchup and Sauces. — When the materials to be pickled are 
finely chopped, cooked, and strained, aiul the resulting product is 
a more or less thick tiuid, they are called ketchups or sauces. 
Many fruits and vegetables may be used for this purpose, but 
tonuitoes are more generally used. 

Dill Pickles. — In making dill pickles and sauer-kraut the acid 
is produced by fermentation and not by adding vinegar. The 
lactic acid bacteria convert the sugar present in these vegetables 
into lactic acid which acts as the preserving agent. The dill is 
added for the sake of its spicy flavor. 

BRIKIXG 

Large quantities of vegetables may be taken care of during 
the harvesting season by brining them and allowing them to cure. 
They may be finished several months later in a less busy season, 
and wh(>n vinegar, s\igar, and spices are likely to be cheaper. 



PICKLING 191 

This method of keeping vegetables has been practiced since 
primitive times. Our ancestors saved much of their surplus crop 
by storing it away in brine. Sometimes this material kept well ; 
often it did not. The failure was attributed to bad luck, and the 
reasons for it were unknown. Tremendous losses in the spoilage 
of pickles in factories led to scientific investigation of this subject 
As a result valuable information has been contributed to the pub- 
lic. Otto Rahn 's experiments at the University of Michigan ^re 
the source of much of this information. i 

The causes of spoilage will be discussed later. The different 
methods used in brining and pickling may be more satisfactorily 
explained by the use of a single product; for example, the 
cucumber. 

PICKLING THE CUCUMBER 

Preparation. — It is not necessary to wash the cucumbers 
before putting them into brine, since the bacteria on the outside 
of the vegetable aid in the process, and the brine pickles are 
washed, anyway, before being eaten. This does not apply in 
the case of dill pickles. These are eaten as they come from the 
crocks. German bacteriologists recommend that a little whey 
from sour milk be put into the pickle barrel to hasten the 
fermentation. 

Brine. — Soft water should be used in making the brine. 
•Water containing much iron or lime will discolor the pickles. 
Put the cucumbers into brine very soon after they are gathered. 
A good measure of salt is absolutely necessary to prevent spoil- 
age, but salt alone is not enough. The strength of the brine 
used can easily be determined by using a salometer — a hydrom- 
eter or spindle which will show the density or strength of the 
brine by floating in the liquid (Fig. 108). The cucumbers may 
be put down in a 45 degree to a 60 degree brine. The salt 
draws out water from the vegetable tissues and toughens them 
somewhat. For this reason the weaker brine will give a 
better texture to the finished product. About one pound of 
salt dissolved in one gallon of water will cause a salt hydrometer 
to float at about 45 on the scale, which will show that it is a 
45 degree salt solution. The cucumbers should be weighted 



192 



siccKssr I I, ( wnim; and I'i;ksi;k\ inc 



P 



HI 



ai 




down so lllis Sdllltldli will ('(imiilctcly rn\i-v tlHIil. A 
cln'csccliitli may In- plai-i'd ovci- llic top to cxcliiilt' the 
iliisl and at tlir saiiM* tiiiu- admit air. 

liUIM.S 



Approximate, 

percentage of 

solution 


Weight of Halt 


C^iiiiiility of 
water 


I)cKrc«rH, 
1 Huloiiicter 


1 


2 ounces 


quarts 


■1 


2 


4 ounces 


6 quarts 


, S 


3 


() ounces 


G quarts 


1 12 


4 


•S ounces 


6 quarts 


IG 


5 


10 ounces 


quarts 


20 


G 


121^ ounces 


6 quarts 


24 


7 


143/2 ounces 


G quarts 


28 


8 


163^ ounces 


G (juarts 


1 32 


9 


1 pound 3 ounces 


G (juarts 


3() 


10 


1 pound () ounces 


G (juarts 


1 40 


15 


2% pounds 


G quarts 


GO 


20 


3 pounds 


G quarts 


1 SO 


25 


4 pounds 


6 quarts 


100 



From tlie above table it will be understood tliat tire figures 
representing tlie pereenta<i;e of salt in a solution is obtained 
by dividing tbe number of degrees wlneii are read on a 
salometer by 4; for instance, to make a ()8° salt soliitiun we 
bave to dissolve 08 divided by 4, or 17 parts of salt in 83 
jiarts of water. 

Grading. — Cueunibers sliould be graded according 
to size, as follows (Fig. 109) : 

8i/.e 1 — 1 to 2 Indies — Small gberkins. 
Size 2 — 2 to 3 inches — Small pickles. 
Size 3 — 3 to 4 inches — ^Icdium ])ickles. 
Size 4 — 4 inches and over — Large pickles. 

Bacteria Necessary. — Many kinds of bacteria are 
])resent on tlie surface of the cucumbers, csjiecially if 
a little dirt adheres to them. Among the othel- organ- 
isms there are a considerable num])er of lactic acid 
bacteria. Tlie ])resence of salt and lack of air in the 
brine prevent most of the other bacteria from grow- 
ing; the lactic acid organisms, however, not being 
restrained to as great a degree as the other types grow 
^""'"e'tor"""" upon the substances given oil" by the siirinking of the 



PICKLING 



193 




.-rSAA 



13 



Ill I Sl'CCKSSFrL f'ANNINC AND I'KKSKUVINC 

(•iiciiiiiltiTs ill llii' salt soliiliuii .hkI <'(iii\.-it the sii;.Mr into lartict 
iK'id and y.ns.'- 'I'lif ^ms escapes and can lie .seen in lillle liiilildc:^ 
(»n tile t(ij) (»r tile hiiiie. The liiilililcs indicate lliat, fernicnfat ion 
is taUinj,'' place. 'I'lie acid tni'iis the ^'i-as.s j^reeniies.s of the 
vee;,'tal»le to an olive jireeii, uhicli color is rccofjuized a.s l)L'in«r 
the cori'ect lint Toi* jiickles. When the frothing,' ceases the acid 
pi'cscnt in the Iniiie is sti-oiej- eiioii|_di to kill most of" the liacteria 
in the liipiid. and I'l-iiiii this lime on the pickle lii'ine should he 
(*o\-ered, as explained below. 

Spoilage Caused by Other Bacteria. — It is im|)oi'lant, from 
the l)e^'innin;r of the pi'ocess. to keep the ve^n-tahle being' piekled 
\vei<ilited below the sui'face of the biine. If pieces protrude, the 
so-called ])otato bacillus will •rrow Mpim the exposed surfaces and 
cause spoilafre. They grow rapidly and may do great damage in 
a very short time. The addition of a little vinegar will destroy 
these bacteria if they are discovered before much damage is 
done. 

Test for Acid. — To determine when the brine reaches the 
acid stage, put a i)iece of blue litmus paper into it. If the litmus 
])aper turns red, showing the presence of acid, all air should be 
excluded from the brine. This prevents the formation of yeast 
scum, whicli causes the spoiling of the pickles. 

Preventing Scum Yeast. — This is not difficult. Simply skim- 
ming the yeast oft' is not sufficient, because it will grow again 
unless the container is sealed air-tight immediately after the brine 
tests acid. The very fact that yeast grows as scum proves that it 
must have air in order to live. It cannot endure hot sunlight, 
either. The bacteria wdiich form the a«id in the brine have just 
the opposite characteristics. They grow at the bottom of the 
crock or jar, where they avoid the air and where there is no light. 

Excluding the Air. — It is necessary to exclude air, because 
ail- may can-y in with it yeast, and the scum, which might form, 
would cause the pickles to soften and spoil. So soon as the acid 
test is obtained take care to weight the cucumbers down under the 

^Most of the pas is causiul by tlii' respiration or hn-atliiiijr of the li' ing 
tissue ceils of tiio fucinii tiers ; a small amount, liowcvt-r. is produced In- 
certain types of lactic acid hacteria. 



IMCKI.ING 



19: 



brine, cover the brine witli a piece of cheesecloth, and then pour 
on a thick layer of melted paraffin. Place the lids on the creeks 
or jars and wrap a strip of cheesecloth, dipped in hot melted par- 
affin, around where the lid and the top of the container meet, let- 
ting the paraffin harden and seal the opening. The paraffin is 
inexpensive and can be remelted and used year after year. Care 
shouhl be taken not to pour it over the brine until fermentation 
has ceased, otherwise the gases arising from the brine will crack 
the paraffin and make remelting necessary. The containers should 
not be disturbed after they have been so sealed. One important 
characteristic of this scum is that it will not grow in the absence 




Fig. 110. — Sealing a crock with a band of cheesecloth dipped into boiling paraffin. 



of air, therefore the exclusion of air from the surface will entirely 
prevent the scum from forming (Fig. 110). 

Brining in Barrels. — In treating large quantities, secure tight 
kegs or barrels. These may have to be charred and cleansed well. 
It is possible in brining vegetables to commence with a lighter 
brine, but they should probably be packed in a brine not lighter 
than 60 degrees. As soon as the brine tests acid, the barrels 
can be bunged up tightly to keep out all air. Since the brine is 
likely to settle and become strong at the bottom and weak at the 
top, it is best to turn the casks or barrels over every week for the 
first few weeks. 



inr. 



SrcCKSSl'lL ( ANMNC AND I'KKSKRN JNc; 



Wlicii tlicsc pickles iii-i- (i|»('ii lli('\- sli(tiil(l he lirni, jrood olivc- 

LMTcii colcii- ;iii(l ill fine coMditioii. Tlie ^'i-cat secret of pickle-inak- 

iiiir lies ill hriiiLriiij.' about acid t'criiiciitat ion (]iiickly. and, after 

this is done, in preserving' tlie acidity of tlie liriiie by covei-injr 

tiL'litlx. 

S1MCKI> (TCI .Mi;i:i: I'icKl.l'; 

()ptii the containers. \vei<rh and freslieii the eiirod eiiciiiiihei-s 
))\- alhiwin^'- them to stand for an hour or two in clear, eohl water. 
It is i)clir\cd that the pickles afi- iiiiproNcd in tcMiire Miiade crisp 
and liriii ) by dropping; them into a lime liat h ' mie ounce of lime 
to one ^^alloii of water) for about two hours. The lime used is 
calcium oxiile and i-aii be obtained ffdiii drii!,'' stores. The color 
may be intt'iisilied by jieutrali/.in^' the acid with a soda bath (One 
teaspoonful of soda to one p-alloii of watei-). If eithei- of tlipse 
baths is used it is necessary, immediately afterwards, to phmgrt^ 
the cueinnbers into clear, cold water for one liour. Drain well 
and place in a granite kettle which has been lined with sjiinach 
or grape leaves, cover the cucumbers with the leaves, and jiour 
over them l)oilin<r water, allow to stand in these leaves nntil thor- 
ouprhly cold, drain well, and cover with a scalding- vinejrar solu- 
tion (one pint of vinegar to three jiints of water"). Cool quickly 
and allow them to stand for three or four hours. By so treating 
with grape or spinach leaves a better green color may be obtained 
in the finished product. Place cucumbers in a fresh vinegar bath 
(two i)ints of vinegar to two jiints of water^i . Allow them to stand 
until next morning. 

Spiced Sour Pickle. — 1 f a spiced pickle is desired, allow spices 
in the following proportion to each two-pound lot of cucumbers: 

1 ounce of stick cinnamon (> oiipfuls of the last vinegar so- 

Va ounce of cloves lution in which the cucuinl)ers 

y^ ounce of dried ginger root ^ liave been standing 

Boil vinegar and spices together for five minutes, pour over 

•■"Dried ginger root, or race ginger, can be obtained from the drug store. 
The wliite coating on the ginger is due to the lime water in whidi it lias 
been dipped after drying to prevent insects from eating it. The coating is 
carbonate of lime. Tliis race ginger should be dropped into boiling water 
and il rained liefnre adding it to tlie syrup. 



PICKLL^'C 



197 



hcl> 



B2 

to B 



e 3 




|.)s sr( (Kssi iL t WMNc AM) ri:i.>i;i;\ 1 .\( ! 

till' (Irjiiiiftl ciiciiiiilifrs. .illdW to (■(Mil. Mini tlit-ii p.ifk into j.ii's and 
|Miiir till' spired \ ilif^MI- (i\(l" thrill. 

Spiced Sweet Pickles. — If a sweet pickle is desinMl, malic a 
s,\ iiip of the six ciipi"iils <tt' viiie<r;ir sdliitioii and one aiul one-half 
pounds i>r sii^rar* and cook to;r<'thcf with spices for fifteen min- 
utes, pour o\ei- the ciicuiiiheis. and allow to co(»l over iiiyht. Xext 
morning' diain the spii-ed s\ flip from the cucmnbers, hoil for ten 
minutes, and ajrain poui" ovec the eiiciimhers, stand for two hours, 
then hoil to^'-ethei- with tile pickles until they heeonie bright and 
ejenr (;iliout ten iiiiniitesi, cool (juicklv in a <'ovei-od pan, and 
when cold ;irr;in;:e the iMieuiiihers attract ivel\' in jars and ])our 
over tluMii the sti'ained spiced sxi-uj). 

Cucumber Sweet Meats. — An atti-aetive ])ack may be made 
hy slicing' the sweet pickled, medium-sized cucumbers before 
packing. Cut slices one-half inch thick, also cut a small circle 
from tile center of each slice. Place a raisin or red cherry in the 
ceiitei- for a garnish, arrange unifonnly in the jars, strain the 
syrup in which the pickles have been plumping, and pour over 
tlie cucumbers in the jars, paddl(> to remove air bidibles, seal and 
])roeess (Fig. 111). 

Plain Cucumber Pickle. — Aftei- washing the brine from the 
cured (•ucund)ers, allow them to stantl in fresh, cold water for 
three hours. Di-ain and cover with a weak solution of vinegar 
and allow them to stiiiid foi- two oi- three liours. Put in kettle : 

1 quart of vine^'ar 1 pound of brown suijar 

% cupful of wlioU- Mack p('2»por 2 tal)l('spoonfuls of cloves 

1 or 2 pods of red pepper 1 taljlesjioonful of mace 

Boil for five mimites and })()ur ovt-r the cucumbei's which have 
been drained from the first vinegar. This amount is for one gallon 
of pickle. Pack into jars, cover with the s])ieed vinegar, and 
|)ro('ess to se;d aii'-tiglit. 

Cucumber Slices. — Select medium-sized cucundiers. Peel 
and slice thinly. To each gallon of slices sprinkle one cuj) of salt. 
Let stand for tw^elve hours; drain out the salt watei"; drop slices 
into glass jars, cover with pure, cold cider vinegar, seal and 
jirocess in water-bath for fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit 
(simnici'ing). 



PICKLING 199 

Spiced Cucumber Salad. — 

Vegetables Spiced vinegar 

5 pounds of sliced ciU'Uinbers 1 quart of vinejTar 

(about 2 dozen) y-> cupful of sugar 

V^ cupful of cliopped onion 1 tablespoonful each of salt, 

2 cupfuls of sweet red pepper powdered ginger, and nuis- 

{ chopped) tard seed 

1 cupful of sweet green pepper 1 tablespoonful each of whole 

(chopped) pepper, celery seed, cloves, 

cinnamon, and allspice 

Mix the cucumber and onion and sprinkle alternate layers 
with salt, using three-quarter cupful for this lot. Let stand over 
night. Put peppers in brine (one cupful of salt to one gallon of 
water) over night. Next morning drain vegetables and freshen 
for one to two hours in clear, cold water. 

Put all whole spices in cheesecloth bag, except the celery seed 
and mustard seed, which are put in loose. Add spices to the 
vinegar and boil for five minutes. Drain the vegetables well and 
pour the hot spiced vinegar over them. Let stand twenty-four 
hours. Pack, distributing the pepper well and flattening some o f 
the cucumber slices against the face of each jar. Fill jars with 
same vinegar and paddle well to remove all bubbles. Garnish 
with strips of red pepper or pieces of spice. Process pint jars for 
fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering). 

Sweet Pickled Cucumbers and Red Peppers. — 

12 sound cucumbers 1 teaspoonful of black pepper 

8 sweet red peppers 1 teaspoonful of celery salt 

1 cupful of brown sugar 1 teaspoonful of ground cloves 

1 teaspoonful of salt 1 teaspoonful of allspice 

1 pint of vinegar 

Cut the cucumbers in slices one inch thick. Remove the seed 
sacks from the peppers, and cut peppers lengthwise in strips one 
inch wide. Place alternate layers of each in a preserving kettle. 
Sprinkle one-half cupful of salt over them, cover with cold water, 
and let stand four hours. Strain and wash thoroughly in cold 
water to remove the brine ; now put the cucumbers and peppers 
back into the preserving kettle, mix together the sugar and sea- 
sonings, add to pickle mixture with vinegar, and cover and cook 



•MM) SrcCKSSKlL CANNINC AM) I'llKSKIlN I N(; 

until t.'iiilci-, stirr-in^' sln\\l\- ,-111,1 (>U,']i. It will take twenty to 
tliiit.x iiiimiti's. Pack into jars and jn-occss as for .spiced cucum- 
\n'V salad. 

Rummage Pickle. — 

'J <|iiintH of •^rocMi tomatoes 

1 (|Uiirt of ripo toinatoo!} 

2 buiiclios of fc'iory 
4 inediiini-si/cd onioiia 
2 sweet {freeii jjejtpers 
2 sweet red peppers 
1 quart of small frreeii ciiiiiiii- 

bera 
Put the vcfretables throu^-li a food cliopixT, sprinkle with onc- 
lialf enpfnl of salt, and allow to stand over ni^dit. iJrain well 
the next nioniin^' and mix thoi'ou^diJN- with all ingredients. A! 



4 f aldespoonfiils nf salt 

1 <|iiart of viiie;.'ar 

1 |)i>iind of lirown snpar 

1 tai>I«'spo<infiil of TJiiiKtarrl 

] taldespodiifnl f)f liiiiiamon 

1 .-inull liuL red ]iij)per 



low 




1 1 . , . 1 1 .. . r : ^ j . . ; , . . . ■ i pickles. 

to slan<l for from four to five hours. Pack into jars, prmi'ss. and 
seal. 

.MIXKU J'lCKI.ES 

Mixed Pickles. — 

:; lar;,fe heads of ealtl»a',fe 

1 quart of vinegar 

2 pounds of sugar 
y^ ounce eaeli of cloves, cinna- 
mon, allspice aiid mace 



1 peek ot green tomatoes 

1 dozen medium-sized onions 

2 dozen cucuinl)ers 

1 dozen green pe|)pers 



PICKLING 



201 



Chop them separately and very fine. Mix all together and put 
in alternate laj'ers of the mixture and salt. Let stand over night. 
Then squeeze dry and cover with cold vinegar. Let it stand 
twenty-four hours and squeeze as before. Mix vinegar with 
spices, add sugar, boil for five minutes, and pour over the chopped 
vegetable. Allow to stand for several hours. Pack in jars, gar- 
nish with strips of red pepper, cover with the spiced vinegar, and 
process (Figs. 112 and 113). 



1 tablespoonful of whole cloves 

1 tablespoonful of allspice 

1 tablespoonful of celery seed 

(crushed) 
1 tablespoonful of mustard seed 
1 tablespoonful of ground mus- 
tard 



Green Tomato Pickle. — 

1 gallon of green tomatoes 
i/l> dozen large onions 
3 cupfuls of brown sugar 
% lemon 

3 pods of red pepper 
3 cupfuls of vinegar 
1 tablespoonful of whole black 
pepper 

Slice the tomatoes and onions thin. Sprinkle over them one- 
half cupful of salt and let stand over night in a crock or enamel 
vessel. Tie the pepper, cloves, allspice, and celery seed in a cheese- 
cloth bag. Slice the lemon and chop two pepper pods very fine. 
Drain the tomato and onion well. Add all seasoning except one 
pepper pod to the vinegar, then add the tomato and onion. Cook 
for one-half hour, stirring gently at intervals to prevent burning. 
Remove spice-bag to prevent darkening product. Pack in pint 
jars and garnish with slender strips of the red pepper, placing 
them vertically on the opposite sides of each jar. Process for 
fifteen minutes (Fig. 114). 



Mustard Pickle. — 

Vegetables 
1 pint of whole small cucum- 
bers 
1 pint of sliced cupunil)ers 
1 pint of small whole onions 
1 cupful of string beans 
3 sweet green peppers 
3 sweet red peppers 
1 pint of green fig tomatoes or 
1 pint of cauliflower 



Dressing 
I quart of vinegar 
4 tablespoonfuls of flour 
1 cupful of brown sugar 
3 tablespoonfuls of powdered 

mustard 
V2 tablespoonful of turmeric 
1 teaspoonful of celery seed 
(crushed) 



502 



SUCCKSSFUI. CAXNIXG AND PRESERVIXr. 




Fig. 113.— a fancy pack of inixed pickle 



PICKLING 



203 



Cut all vegetables before measuring- — tomatoes into halves, 
cucumbers into slices, string beans into one and one-half inch 
lengths, diagonally or on the bias, and chop peppers. All vege- 
tables should be tender, and the whole cucumbers not longer than 
two and one-half inches. 

Put all vegetables into brine over night, then freshen in clear 




Fig. 114. — Packing pickles with paddles. (Heinz Company.) 



water for two hours. Let these vegetables stand in liquor of one- 
half vinegar and one-half water for fifteen minutes, and then 
scald in same liquor. 

To make mustard dressing, rub all the dry ingredients together 
until smooth, then add the hot vinegar slowly, stirring to make 
smooth paste. Cook over pan of water, stirring carefully, until 



•j((l siccKssi I 1,1 \\\i\(; \\i) i'i;i>i:i:\ ISC 

llii- siiiicc lliickciis. 'riicii (lijiiri the \ i';.Tt;ililfs t liofoii^rlilv aii(i 
|inin- the iiiiisl;inl (h-cssiiij; o\ n- tliciii uliilc liul. Mix well and 
|i;i(k into jars. I'l-uccss |)iiif jai-s for twenty iiiimit«'s at 180" 
l-'alircnlicit i siimiH'rMti^' >, 

KKMSIIKS 

Dixie Relish. — 

1 (unirt of clioiipcd c-alihajre 4 tiilil»'s|i(MiMfnls nf imistnnl 
1 pint of (•li()|)pc(l wliitt' (Jiiion s('»'d 

1 pint of clioppcd .swt'ft red 2 tahlcspoonfuls <if cilt'iv M-i-d 

popper (crushed) 

1 pint of clioppcd sweet ^rreeii •</, cupful of su;.'ar 

pei)|)or 1 quart of cider vine;,'ar 
4 tablespoonfuls of salt 

Soak tlio pcppt'i- ill l)i-iii(' (one cupt'iil ot' sail In one <ralloii of 
water) for twenty-four hours. Freslicn in clear, eold water for 
one or two liour.s. Drain well, remove seeds and rf)arse white see- 




i-Ki. ll.j. — .\l:ikiiiK Dixie relish ami ;^Hilliii>: iicppir ii].iiit'<MS. 

tioiis. Chop separately, and measure tiie chopped cal)l)a<re. pep- 
pers, and onions hefoi-e mi-\in<r. Add sjiiees. su<rar, and vinejrar. 
Let stand over nijrht covered in a ci'ock or eiiaimlleil vessel. Pack 
in small stei-ili/.ed jars (Fijr. 11;")). 

When ready to pack, drain the vinegar oil the reli.sh in order 



PICKLING 205 

that the jar may hv well packed. Pack the relish in the jars, 
pressing it carefully; then pour over it the vinegar which was 
drained ofit'. Paddle the jar thoroughly, to get every bubble out, 
and allow the vinegar to displace all air spaces. Garnish each 
jar with two slender strips of red pepper. Place these strips ver- 
tically on the seams in the jar on opposite sides. Cap, clamp, and 
process for fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering). 

Pepper Relish. — Take one dozen sweet gi*een peppers and 
one dozen sweet red peppers and add three large onions, chopped 
fine. Cover with boiling water and let stand ten minutes, drain, 
cover again with hot water and let come to a boil. Then let stand 
again. Drain dry and add three tablespoonfuls of salt, two pints 
of vinegar, and two cups of granulated sugar. Cook fifteen min- 
utes and pack hot in jars, and process as for Dixie Relish. Seal. 

Corn Relish. — 

1 dozen ears of corn 1 cupful of sugar 

1 head of cabbage 2 tablespoonfuls of nuistard 

3 sweet red peppers 1 tablespoonful of salt 

3 sweet green peppers 1 tablespoonful of celery salt 
1 quart of vinegar 

Blanch corn for two minutes and drop into a cold bath for 
a few seconds before cutting from cob. Cook all together for 
twenty minutes. Pack into sterilized jars, seal, and process. 

Uncooked Tomato Relish. — 

i/o i)eck of ripe tomatoes i/^ teaspoonful of rod pepper 

1 quart of cider vinegar 1 teaspoonful of ground cloves 
G green peppers 4 teaspoonfuls of mustard seed 
6 sweet red peppers (yellow) 

4 medium-sized onions 5 tablespoonfuls of salt 
1/2 cupful of chopped cabbage 1 cupful of sugar 

2 teaspoonfuls of celery seed 

Scald and peel tomatoes, chop all ingredients fine, add season- 
ings, and mix well. Add the vinegar and allow to stand over 
night. Next morning pack cold into small sterilized jars, seal, 
and process. 



)>[)(•, SI CCKSSl I L ( AWINC AM) I'KI.M.UX 1N(J 

Sweet Pepper Chow-chow. — 

.'{ prcks (if HWj-rt rrd |ic|)|)fi> 'j |M'(k iil iiriiinis 

1 ciiiifiil of ^iratrd liorM-rmlisli .'( ciiitfiils of hiij,'iir 

r> tal)l(sj)ooiifiils of salt ."{ o 11 II <• I' K <»f celery Meed 

4 ounces of iniistanl seed ( cnislied ) 

'/o taldcs|)0()iifiil of lilack |ie|i|ier 1 teas|iooiifiil of doves 

.'< teas|iooiifiils of ciniiainon I teaspooiiful of alls|iic(> 

1 j,'alluii of ((i(>-;,'iaiii ) \ iiie;;ar - teaspooiifiils of jirouml ;riii;rer 

Sixty-fj:raiii viiu'<rar is a comiiicrcial term for expressing the 
aeidity of the viiie<,'ar. Its r(iiiivaleiit, e.\|)ressed in j)ereentaf;e, 
would be per cent acetic acid. 

Chop pej)pers and onions, inix all infrt'odieiits. and cook over a 
slow (ii'e for thi'ee hours. Tliis (luantity will (ill fifteen i)int jars. 
Tills relish can be improved by addinjr tabasco sauce to suit the 
taste. 

CIIl'TNEVS 

Ilol Sii'crls to Serve irith Currirs, Cold Mrafs, Sdusafjr. (uid Stnf.<i 

B. S. Chutney. — This cluitiiey is packed in red and yellow 
bands in the jars. These colors represent the banner of Spain, 
and for this reason it is called l^ainier Sjiain or B. 8. Chutney. 

Red part Yellow part 

2 pounds of sweet Spanisli Pi- 1 pint of small yellow fig tonia- 
miento or 2 No. 1 cans of Pi- toes (preserved) or 

miento 1 pint of gingered watcrniolon 

1 pound of sugar rind or 

Juice of 4 lemons 1 pint of gingered cliayote 

2 liot [)('j)])ers sweet jiickle 

Red Part. — Peel the peppers according to the inst'nictions 
given for canning. Chop sweet and hot peppers together, add 
sugar and lemon juice, and let stand in an enamelled vessel or 
crock for twelve hours. Drain off the liquor and allow it to sim- 
mer for ten minutes. Pour it over the peppers again and let stand 
for four hours. Simmer the li(|uor again for fifteen minutes, 
allowing the peppers to remain in while simmering. 

Yellow Part. — ITse one pint of ])reserved yellow tonmtoes, 
one pint of chopped gingered watei-iuelon rind, or one pint of 
chayote sweet pickle. The preserved yellow tomatoes should be 



PICKLING 207 

kept as nearly whole as possible. If the gingered watermelon rind 
or chayote is usod it should bo cliojipod or cut into small, uniform 
pieces that will pack easily. 

A ten-ounce, vase-shaped hermetic jar is an attractive package 
for this product. In packing, place the heavier color — red — at the 
bottom in a one-inch layer ; then place a one-inch layer of yellow. 
Continue in this manner until the jar is neatly filled. Combine 
the liquors and boil five minutes, strain, and pour it over the con- 
tents. Paddle to remove aii- bubbles. Cap, clamp, and process 
for ten minutes. 

The small yellow fig tomato used in the chutney recipe is the 
variety which may be used for green tomato pickle and whole 
ripe-tomato preserves. 

Apple Chutney. — 

1 pound of green sour apples 2 ounces of race ginger root 

1 pound of button onions 4 ounces of Chile peppers (or 

1 pound of raisins any hot peppers) 

1 pound of soft brown sugar 8 ounces of salt 

1 quart of cider vinegar 1 tablespoonful of celery seed 

1 clove of garlic (cruslied) 

Put the onions and salt and one cup of water in a bowl and 
cover. Renew this bath each morning for two days. 

Pare, core, and slice the apples, soak with the other ingredients 
in a pint of cider vinegar for two days, add onions, and put 
through a food chopper. Combine with another pint of vinegar 
and boil until the apples are tender. Pack in small jars, seal, 
and process. 

MANGOES 

Stuffed Pepper Mango. — Mango peppers are mild, sweet, 
yellow, and waxy in appearance. They are highly esteemed for 
pickling. Soak sweet peppers in brine (one cupful of salt to one 
gallon of water) for twentj^-four hours. When ready to stuff, 
take from brine, rinse in fresh water, carefully cut a circle off the 
top of each pepper, and save same, to be placed on peppers after 
stuffing. Remove the seeds and white sections. Soak in clear, 
cold water for one or two hours. Drain carefully. Stuff with 



1'/. tal.l.'si nliiK 


i)f iiiii>.(ar<l 


seed 




1 tal»lcN|i(ii(iifiil (if 


>:.ll 


1 tal>l<-S|MM,lll'lll of 


I'iiinaiiioii 



208 SUCCKSSKl I. ( .\NM.\(; AM) l'l:Ksr.|;\ iNc 

Dixie relish i p. L'i»4i. lieiiit; encet'iil init to press it in t<t(j 

ti;:lltl.\'. riacc top (III llie pep|M|- ;iii(l iiijilie seclire liy olle (ll* t \V() 

stitches or liy piiiiiiii'.'- r:\\) in jihiee witli tu(» or tliree wooden 
toothpicks. I'iick ;is in;iii,\ stiit't'rd peppej-s as can he phic('<l in 
the jar without cnlsllin^^ 'I'hcn lill the Jar to ovcrllowin^' with a 
spiced viiic^'-ar. Process for lil'tccn iiiimilcs in (piart Jars. 

Spiced Vinegar. — 
'•.' ^alloM of viiicj,'ar 
'/a ciipful of pirated liorscradisli 
I'/L' talilcsjioonfiils of c c 1 <• r y 

seed (cnisliod) 
1 ciiiifiil of siij,'ar 

Ch)Vt's, nutmeg', and liialed onion may lie a(hled if desired. 

Green Mango Pickles. — I'se tiny meen nutnici,' cantaloupes 
and cui'c in brine as lor cucumbers. When cured, soak the nian- 
froes in cold water for two days; then scald in kettle lined witli 
spinach or grape leaves. Cool, drain, and boil for fifteen minutes 
in weak vinegar. Drain and cover them with the second spiced 
vinegar for a week. After that, take the seed from them and fill 
them witli the following spices: 

1 pouiid of <,Mic/er, soaked in 1 ounce of celery seed 

lirino a day or two, until soft ( cruslied ) 

enougli to slice 1 ounce of mace 

1 ounce of <rrouiid lilack pciiper y^ ounce of cloves 

1 ounce of allspice 1 cujiful of firatcd horseradisti 

y^ ounce of turmeric 4 ounces of wliitc mustard seid 

'/, poiuid of frarlu-, soaked for 4 ounces of yellow mustard seed 

a day or two in brine, then 
dried 

A pint of chopped sweet pickles or preserved watermelon rind 
will improve the fiavor and texture of this mixtuj-e for the filling. 

Bruise all the spices and mix with one teaeupful of salad oil. 
To each mango add one teaspoonful of brown sugar. Tiiis mix- 
ture will fill four dozen mangoes, having chopped up some of the 
broken ones to mix with the filling. Tie them or pin together with 
wooden toothpicks, pack in jars, and cover with sweet vinegar, 
allowing one pound of brown sugar for each pint of the spiced 
vinegar in which the melons soaked. Seal and process. 



PICKLING 209 

Spiced Cucumber Mango. — Select large cucumbers and pre- 
pare them as for spiced cucumbers, and allow them to stand for 
about a week. Slice a cap from the stem end and scoop out the 
center of the pickle, fill with Dixie i-elish (j). 204), replace the 
cap, and fasten with wooden toothjiicks. Pack into jars, cover 
with spiced vineo-ar (p. 208), seal, and process. 

Sweet Mango. — Large sweet pickles may be capped, scooped 
out, and filled with the following mixture: 

1 cupful of preserved citron or 14 cupful of preserved orange 

watermelon rind and grapefruit peel 

V-t cupful of candied cherries Vi cupful of conserved ginger 

Fasten the cap in place, pack in jars, garnish with candied red 
cherries or orange-peel, cover with spiced syrup, seal, and process. 
This makes a delicious sweet mango. 

KETCHUP 

Tomato Ketchup. — Select red-ripe tomatoes. The extra 
juice, small and broken fruit, which wnll not do for canning, may 
be used, if they are sound red. Any green or yellowish parts of 
fruit will make a ketchup inferior in flavor and color, and not 
good for market. Use whole spices tied loosely in a bag while 
cooking, and remove before bottling to prevent darkening the 
product caused b}' ground spices. This does not apply to red 
pepper, which helps to give a bright-red color. The pulp of sweet 
Spanish pepper or the ground Hungarian paprika may also be 
used to give color and flavor. Remove seeds from sweet red pep- 
per, chop, and add one cupful of this pepper and two medium- 
sized onions to one gallon of tomatoes before cooking. 

Cook the tomatoes thoroughly, put through a colander or sieve, 
saving all pulp, and measure. For every gallon of pulp use the 
following : 

2 tablespoonfuls of salt 1 level tablespoonful each of 

4 tablespoonfuls of sugar whole allspice, cloves, cin- 

1 tablespoonful of mustard namon, and pepper 

(powdered) 2 small red peppers, sliced and 

1 pint of good cider vinegar seeds removed 

14 



OK) SUCCKSSFIL lANNlNC AND I'KKsKUN INO 

Al'tci- itiittiiifj toinalocs tliroujrii ('nlandcr, add <rround spio(>s 
.iihI spico-lta'T. and ('<i(tk t"(»i' (iiic and one lutll' liniii's, or until nearly 

tliick cniiiiirli. llicii add vinegar and cuciU until tliirU. IJapid >k 

u\)S ( l>»'in<; cai-crni not to scopcli the kftdnip ) will <s\\(' a hcttcr 
cojoj-llian slow ('(xtking. Tin- linislicd pi(Mhict should liavc a line, 
iiriii'lit Vf{] coloi-. 

i'oui- tile ketchup at once into hot stei'ili/ed bottles. If any 
(juantity is made t'oi' sale, set tin' hot hottles at onee into a vessel 
(d' hot water, ha\ int:' a lai-k or I'alsc bottom in it to pi'event hreak- 
ai:i', put the cork stoppei'S in loosely, and process at boilinf^-point 
I'of tliitt>- minutes. Drive the corks in ti<;litly, and when eool 
dip mouth of l)(»ttle into melted i)aral"lin, or cover stopi)er with 
sealiu},' wax. 

Recipe for making sealing wax was given on page 101. 

English Mushroom Ketchup (Xiee for Soups and Sauces). — 

I quart of vinegar 1 toaspoonfnl of horseradish 

20 pounds of mushrooms Va ounce of cloves 

1 pound of salt Vs ounce of allspice 

To eacli quart i)f li(|iior add 1 1 teaspoonful of wliole pepper 

ounce of liruiscd or <i:i(miid 1 sjjrig of mace 

ginger 2 onions 

y^, nutmeg 1 clove of garlic 

X 

Run mushrooms through food chopper, mix salt through tlu'in. 
and let stand for twelve hours, then drain. To the liquor add all 
ingredients, boil slowly two hours, add vinegar, bottle, process, 
and seal. 

Grape Ketchup. — 

4 pounds of grapes % teaspoonful of cayonni' pcp- 

2 tablespoon fu Is of cinnamon per, if desired 

1 tal)lespoon tach <if i loves and 1 cuijful of vinegar 

allspices 1 teas])oonfiil of salt 

I'/o pounds of sugar 

Wa.sh and stem the grapes, and steam them over wat(n- until 
soft. Put through a colander, discarding only the skins and 
seeds. To the portion which ]nisses through the sieve add the 
spices, sugar, salt, and viuegar and let simmer for fifteen minutes. 



PICKLING 



211 



Bottle and seal. Use whole spices tied in a cloth while cooking 
and remove before bottling. This will give a better color than 
when ground spices are nsed. For ketchup making the acid 
juicy varieties are preferred to very sw^eet ones. 



Cranberry Ketchup. — 



3 tablespoonfuls of ciniiainon 

i/i tablespoonful of g r o u ii d 

cloves 
l^ tablespoonful of salt 



5 pounds of cranberries 

1 pint of vinegar 

2 pounds of brown sugar 
i/i tablespoonful of paprika 

Cook the cranberries and vinegar until the berries burst, press 
through a sieve, add other ingredients, and simmer until thick, 
process 15 minutes at 180^ Fahrenheit (simmering), cork, 
and seal. 



Pimiento Ketchup. — 

G pounds of ripe, roasted, and 

peeled pimientos 
2 tablespoonfuls of salt 
2 pounds of sugar 



2 tablespoonfuls of powdered 

ginger 
2 tablespoonfuls of powdered 

cinnamon 



1 quart of vinegar 
Roast and peel the pimientos as for canning. Remove stem 
seeds, weigh, and pass through a food chopper. Rub spices 
together, add sugar, and mix well \^^th the pepper pulp. Heat 
thoroughly and add the vinegar slowly. Cook all together until 
smooth and of the proper consistency. Pack hot into hot bottles, 
cork or cap, and seal. If the bottles of ketchup are to be shipped, 
process them 30 minutes at 180° Fahrenheit, cork or seal 
immediately. 

SAUCES 

Chile Sauce. — 



1 gallon of chopped ripe toma- 
toes 

% cupful of chopped white 
onions 

% cupful of chopped sweet 
green peppers 

1/, cupful of ciiopped sweet red 
peppers 



V2 cupful of brown sugar 

2 tablespoonfuls of ginger 

1 tablespoonful of cinnamon 

1 tablespoonful of mustard 

1 nutmeg (grated) 

1 quart of vinegar 

5 tablespoonfuls of salt 

1/3 teaspoonful of cayenne pepper 



:ji-j si (.(.'Ksstl l CANMNt; AMJ riiKSKia 1N(; 

reel the toiiiatocs iiiul onidiis. Chop the onions and peppers 
fine, i'xiil all the iii<_'rr(li('nts ('X('('|)t the vincfrar tojr^'tlicr Tor two 
hdiii's or until soft ami Inoki'ii. Add \iiirLrai' and siinriici' for- one 
lioui-. S(ii- tVi'(|ii«iitl\ . liolllc and seal while hot . 

Pepper Sauce. — Wash small cluTry or Chile nd and jrrcfn 
peppers, pack into bottles, cover with -rood eich'i" vine^'ar and eork. 
It will he ready foi- use within a few (hiys. As the sauee is useil 
more vine<ra?- may ])e added to the peppers from time to time. 

Tabasco Sauce. — 

4 (io/cii rt'd tiiliasco or (liilc '/^. cupful of sj)ict'<l viiic^rar 

l)L'i)|H'is 1 clove of f^arlic 

Boil the finely (•hoj)ped ^'arlic and jx'pjx'rs until tender, drain, 
rub through a sieve, and add to tiie paste enough spiced vinegar 
to make it of a creamy consistency. Bottle and seal. Onion may 
he used in place of garlic if desired. Use spiced vinegar. Recipe . 
given on page 208. 

Tomato Paste. — 

1 i|uait of tliick tomato pulp !>. tea.spoonful of salt 

1 slice of onion ( li inches in 1 teaspoonful of paf)rika 

(lianicter) 1 tahlesj)oonful of mi.xed s|)ices 

Mix one tahlesjxjonful of spices al)()ut as follows: One-half 
teasj)()onful each of mustai'd seed, cloves, ciniuimon. crushed 
celery seed, and bay leaf, one-quartei- teaspoonful f)f whole black 
jiepper, and one sprig of mace. 

Tie S])ice in cheesecloth and cook witli tomato pulp in a pan 
over water until thick enough to hold the shape of a sj^oon when 
a spoonful of it is dipped out. Pack hot into small sterilized jars 
or flat No. 1 cans, process fifteen miiuites at boiling. 

PRESERVING VKGKTABI.KS WV 1-1:R.M KN'I'ATK iN ' 

The preserving of food products by fermentation has been 
practiced for centuries. In Europe many fermented substances 
are common articles of food. In llie Cnited States, however, 
pickles and sauer-kraut are the only foods commonly prepared 

'The recipe for prcservinpr cucnml)ers, oliayotos. beets, and strin? beans 
by fermentation was contributed liy Dr. L. A. Round, Bureau of Chemistry, 
Department of Agriculture. 



PICIO^ING 213 

in this manner. A number of vegetables which are commonly 
preserved by canning can be fermented and kept indefinitely. 
Whenever it is difficult to obtain tin cans and glass jars, fer- 
mentation is the most feasible method of preserving many food 
products. The following procedure is recommended : 

Cucumbers, Chayotes, Beets, and String Beans.* — Cucum- 
bers and chayotes may be satisfactorily fermented by the fol- 
lowing method : Wash the fruit, if necessary, and pack into a 
clean, \yater-tight barrel, keg, or crock. On the bottom of the 
barrel place a layer of dill and a handful of mixed spice. When 
half full add another layer of dill and another handful of spice. 
When the barrel is full, add more dill and spice. If a keg or 
crock is used, the amount of dill and spice can be reduced in 
proportion to the size of the receptacle. When nearly full, 
cover with cabbage or spinach leaves and a board cover weighted 
with stone. Make a brine by adding one pound of salt to ten 
quarts of w^ater. To each fifteen quarts of brine so made add 
one quart of vinegar. Add sufficient brine to cover the material 
and allow to ferment. The strings should be removed from 
string beans before fermentation. In case of beets and string 
beans, also, if they are to be served like fresh string beans, 
the addition of spice is not necessary. Beets, of course, re- 
quire careful washing to remove all dirt before brining. When 
the acid test with litmus paper is obtained, seal the brine 
air-tight. 

Dill Pickles. — Dill pickles are made from fresh or salted 
cucumbers (the former are choicer, but the latter have better 
keeping qualities). Employ pickled dill seed or herb ^ and "dill 
spice," composed of allspice, black pepper, coriander seed, and 
bay leaves, in addition to the brine. 

Soak 100 cucumbers in a 30-degree brine until the brine will 
give an acid test with litmus paper. Drain and arrange in 
layers in a crock, putting in a layer of cherry or grape leaves 

' Dill is an herb of the parsley family, grown cliiefly for its aromatic, 
pungent seeds, which are employed in the manufacture of sauces, pickles, etc. 



211 SrcCKSSKCL CANMN'c; aM) I'ltKSKia I N(! 

lirst, tlun tlu- cucuiiiIm'Is, tlicii ;i low clovrs, llic ilill, ;i l"r\v .small 
jiirccs of red pfpptT, and liini iIh- liaves. (Joiit iiiiH' until tin- 
vnn-k is full. Cover with tin- hiinc wliidi was drained olV and 
to wliieli liav(! heen added onedialf eiipful of mustard seed. <jne- 
lialf riipful of horseradish and oni-diaif eiijd'id of salt. (Jover 
with a li^ht. weiiiht and seal air-ti^dit for winter use. 

Brining Cauliflower. — A sur])lus erop of eaulitlowei- can ))e 
lirini'd and used in iiii.xed pickles later in the year wh'ii othei- 
\ey;etal)K'S mature. 

The " Kiee" heads of eaulillower are heavier than the smoother 
heads, and are not so fine for tlie market, hut they are very <;ood 
for j)ieUlinjj:. Plain tight harrels or Ue^s may he used. " Second- 
hand *' eharred harrels are very satisfactory. Be sure harrels 
ai-e clean hefore fillings with the cauliflower. 

All outer leaves shoidd he removed, and the stump and heads 
should he i)ut in whole, if i)ossil)le. Pack eaulillower heads in 
hari-els until two-thirds full, and Mil ])arrel with hrine 
Avhich tests 40° with a salometer. Head the harrels and bore a 
snudl hole (one-half inch to three-quarters inch) in the 
top and fill the barrel to overflowing with .brine through this 
hole. A little brine has to be added from time to time to take 
care of any leakage. Turn barrel at end of each week for six 
w eeks. To do this, bung hole up tightly and turn barrels upside 
down so the salt which has settled at bottom will be equally 
distributed again. Watch for leakage and be sure to keep cauli- 
flower well covered with brine. 

After two months the cauliflower should be repacked. Skim 
the brine, using a skimming ladle. Dip out the cauliflower and 
repack fairly tight in a clean barrel which has been scalded. 
Cover with brine testing 40^ with salometer. If an instrument 
is not at hand for testing the brine, use one pound of salt to 
each gallon of water (one pint of salt to eight pints of water). 
Bung up. All top with water to take care of leakage, and allow 
to stand about five-months or until ready to use. 

The Hollanders commence with a 30-degree l)riiu' and liiush 
with a 3o-degree brine. They cure in casks only, and their 
cauliflower has a better flavor than the domestic, because the 



PICKLING 215 

brine is kept so low that they ^n't a lactic acid cure. The same 
j)rinciple is followed in the cure of genuine dill pickle. 

Sauer-kraut or " Crout." — Use one to three quarts of salt to 
twenty gallons of shredded slaw or cabbage, or three pounds of 
salt to each one hundred pounds of shredded cabbage will give 
a good flavor to the resulting kraut. Remove outside leaves and 
the hard core of cabbage. Shred the rest finely. Line the keg 
with the larger leaves on the bottom and sides as you fill it. Put 
in a three-inch layer of shredded cabbage and sprinkle with four 
or five tablespoonfuls of salt. Continue to repeat the process, 
lining barrel with the large leaves. Pound it all down well until 
the cask is full and covered with the brine. The salt soon ex- 
tracts a considerable amount of juice from the cabbage, and this 
brine should rise above the slaw. Cover with the large leaves 
and a board cover to fit inside the cask. Weight this cover down 
with heavy weights so it will keep the cover level. Care should 
be taken not to use lime or sandstone for weights, for the acid 
produced by fermentation attacks the lime and destroys the 
keeping quality of the brine. It is necessary that the cabbage 
be entirely covered with lirine at all times. Keep in a cool, dry 
cellar for three weeks to a month. Remove the scum and see 
that it is well covered with juice. When the Aveather is warm 
the kraut will cure in sixteen to eighteen days, when it is ready 
for use or for canning. 

It may be packed in No. 3 cans and covered with boiling 
water. Cap, exhaust five minutes, tip, and process thirty minutes 
in a hot-water bath at 212° Fahrenheit. 

Sauer-kraut is usually made in the fall for winter use. It 
may be eaten raw, fried, boiled with pork with onions added, or 
with Wienerwurst sausage and browned in oven, or cooked with 
spare-ribs. 

Brining Onions. — Onions may be cured by the first method 
given for brining cucumbers in a 45-degree brine (p. 192). When 
the liquid gives an acid test the jars or crocks should be sealed 
from the air. The onions will keep several months by this 



2ir. 



STTf'KSSKI'I, r\^S]SO. AND PRESERVING 




ca 

c a 

o 

CO 

.-J 



;5 a 

C 3 



:=a 



=u 



PICKLING 317 

method, and may be used in mixed i)iekles later, or spiced and 
put in vinegar (Fig. 116). 

Pickled Onions. — Select small white onions and sort into 
two sizes, one-half inch diameter in one and three-fourths inch 
in other. Peel, cover with fresh water, and let stand for two 
days, changing the water on second day. Wash well and put 
into brine for four days, changing brine at end of second day. 
Take out of brine and put into boiling water. Let stand for 
ten minutes, then put into cold water for two hours. Drain, and 
pack into jars, putting in a few small red peppers, and garnish- 
ing with sprigs of mace. Fill jars to overflowing with spiced 
vinegar, made previously, as below, and allowed to stand for a 
few days wdth spice-bags left in it. Process as for pickles. 

Spiced Vinegar for Pickled Onions. — 

% gallon of vinegar li/, tablespoonfuls of mustard 

lYg tablespoonfuls of celery seed 

. , . , , ... 1 tablespoonful of salt 

% cupful of grated horseradish 

1 cupful of sugar 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon 

Cloves, nutmeg, and grated onion may be added if desired. 

Pickling Olives.'' — In California, Arizona, and other states 
v;here olives can be grown successfully many housewives are 
interested in pickling them by household methods for home use. 

The two varieties which have given the best results in home 
pickling are the Mission and Manzanillo. The JNIission holds its 
color well while being pickled, and with reasonable care in the 
extracting process yields a product which is firm and of good 
flavor. The Manzanillo is superior to the Mission in flavor, but 
the fruit is of a finer texture and is prone to soften during 
treatment ; the color of the finished product is not so good as that 
of the Mission. 

The finest pickled green olives come from the south of Spain. 
California and Arizona lead in the marketing of the pickled 
ripe olive. On the Pacific coast the green olive is no longer 
receiving attention. 

"Note. — Directions for pickling olives obtained from Farmers' Bulletin 
29(1, 1!)07, U. S. Department of Agriculture, by W. W. Skinner. 



o]ft sr(('i:ssii I. ( ANMNc and I'i;ksi:i;\ inc 

Fruil fni- [licklid L'lCfii olives is j^Mllici-ctl win'ii it lijis attained 
full si/e, luit liil'dir liiial rii)ening Ix'^'iiis. It is suiMi-d aci-onlinj; 
to si/.c and <|iiality. then waslicd and iilaced in a solnlion (d' lime 
and pntasli to fcninvc the Itiltn- taste 

Till' (ili\cs, citliei' Lircen (»!• rijM', slionid Itc picked into jtails 
al)Out ont'-tliii'd I'nll of water, to pnAcnt liruisin'r, and soi'ted 
as to si/e and ripeness. The t'riiil is then placed in suitahle 
vessels (preferahly stone jars, tlmir^li wooden ke;.'-s iiia_\- he used 
ii" sterili/ed so thai llii'v are i'l'ee IVoiii niold sj)oresj, the water 
])oured oil", aJid the i'ruit eo\ei'ed with a solution made of two 
onnees of soda lye, one ounce ol' lime, and une ounce of eonuiion 
sail to a uallon oi' water. The solution shouhi he thorouLrhly 
mixed and allowctl to stand an liour hefore usiuLT, and is iiest if 
made of boiled and cooled water. It should stand ahout two 
inches above the fruit, and if any of the olives float it is necessary 
to cover them with a board and wei<;ht. 

The time of the lye treatment varies fiom tlu'ee to seven days, 
according- to the variety, size, and ripeness of the fi'uit. The 
solution should be examined daily, and should the sleek, soai)y 
feelinj? ])eculiar to lye disapi)ear it indicat(>s that the solution 
is exhausted. The ohl solution should ther(d'iire ln' poured off 
and new solution added. It shouki also be chanjix'd at once 
should any scum or mold appi'ar. The fruit should be fre- 
(piently examined, alwa.vs samjiline' the lai'iicst olives by cutting 
away a i)ortion with a sharj) knife. The progress of the lye 
toward the interior of the fruit is i)lainly nuirked l)y a distinct 
dark rin^-. AVhen the rinu' has reached almost but not (piite to 
the i)it it is time to remove the lye and commence the washini;. 

The lye should imw be poured off and -water added and 
renewed mornine' and niulit. The wash-watei' should also l)e 
boiled as a i)reventative of inold, wdiich is very likely to ck'velop 
at this stage of the jiickling process. The finiit should be kej)t 
in water, as before, with the boai-d and weight, ami 1 hi'ouuhout 
the extraction, washing, and salting the vessel should be closely 
covered. It will rerpiire from four to seven days to ri'move all 
traces of the alkali. AVashing should be continued so lonir as the 
fi-uit h;is the jjcculiar hot taste due to the ])resence of lye, and it 



PICKLING 219 

is well to test it with red litmus paper, which will turn blue if a 
trace of the lye remains. If the olives are still bitter after the 
wasliing has been completed, they should receive a second treat- 
ment with lye, followed by washing. 

When free from lye the olives are ready for pickling. Some 
use brine only or salt and vinegar mixed, others add fennel and 
thyme or coriander and laurel leaves. The fruit is generally 
pickled whole, but when desired to give a stronger pickle savor 
it is marked with incisions to the stone. 

If olives are to be brined, use two ounces of common salt to 
a gallon of water. The brine should be thoroughly boiled, cooled, 
and poured over the olives. The next day this solution should 
be poured off and a solution containing four ounces of salt 
should be used. If the stronger solution is used to begin with, 
the olives will shrivel. The fruit should next be treated with 
an eight-ounce brine, and, if intended to keep for some time, 
finally with a brine containing fourteen ounces of salt to the 
gallon. A fourteen-ounce brine, however, makes the olives too 
salty to be used without a slight soaking. 

The better method of keeping the finished product is to 
process the olives after adding the eight-ounce brine. Glass 
fruit jars filled with olives and brine, with the covers lightly 
screwed down over the rubbers, are heated to 180° Fahrenheit 
(simmering) for thirty minutes. They should then be removed 
and the covers quickly tightened. By this process the flavor 
of the olive is not injured, and if properly done the fruit will 
keep at least several months without deteriorating. 

A perfect pickled green olive is yellowish green, very firm, 
with pinkish pit and agreeable flavor. Fruit of lesser quality 
is dark in color, with meat soft and mushy, or woody and taste- 
less, these defects being caused either by age or imperfect curing. 

Pickled or salted ripe or black olives are purplish black in 
color, and dark and rather soft in pulp, with a bland flavor 
due to the oil developed in the ripening. They are processed 
in much the same manner as green fruit, as prior to pickling 
they retain the characteristic bitter flavor. Green olives are essen- 
tially a relish. Ripe olives are a wholesome and nutritious food. 



Vjo sic'iKssi'Ll. c ANM.NC AM) i'i;i;si;i;\ i \(; 

Plain Mock Olives. — ,M(tcl< olives may l»f made lor lioiiw use 
\'yu\\i iiiiri|(f |i|miis. 'I'lir piiinis, ulicii just hcj^'iiiiiiiitr to i-ipcii, 
liiil still Lirrrii. should lir pirkjcd iu a iri-dcji-cr lirinc (one 
pound oi" salt and one Lrallon ot" watci-j. The bi'iiif slioidd 
l)f poured, hot, ovef the I'luit and allowed to stand for thii't\- 
six hours. It should then he poured olV. I'lare the I'l-iiit in 
a new hrine anil hoil i'or one minute. Drain the |)lnms, pa<-k 
into .jars, cover with hot hriiie. Seal and j)roee.ss pint jars for 
thirty minutes at L'TJ Fahrenheit. 

Spiced Mock Olives. — One ^'allon of <ri-een plums .soaked for 
i\\en1y-four hours in 4r)-de<ri'ee hrine (one pound, nine ounces 
of sail and otie Liallon of water). Drain. j)lace into stone jars, 
and ])()ur scaldinpr vine^'ar over them. Xe.xt nionnn^' drain off 
this vineuar, add to it two tal)lespoonfuls of mustard seed, ami 
hoil for two miiuites. Pour, hot, over the plums and allow to 
stand until cold, l^ack in hottles, cover with hot strained liipior, 
seal, and jirocess as for })lain mock olives. 

Pickled Mushrooms. — Steam whole nuishrooms, place into 
jars, cover with vine<;ar, seal, and process as for mock olives. 

FI..\V()RED VINEGARS 

Tarragon Vinegar. — Bruise one cupful of Tai'iaiion leaves, 
pour over them one (puirt of uood apple vinegrar, and allow to 
stand for from ten to twelve days. After this time strain care- 
fully through a flainiel cloth, hottle, and seal air-tight. 

Celery Vinegar. — 

1 quart of vinegar 8 tablespoonfuls of celery seed 

1 taI)k'spooiiful of salt (crushed) or 1 quart of 

1 taI)l('spoonful of su<,'ar cliopped fresh celery 

Heat the viiieuar, add the .seas()nin,i,^ ami pour while hot over 
the celery. Allow to cool, cover tightly, and set aside for from 
twelve to fifteen days. Strain, hottle, and seal. 

Onion Vinegar. — 

1 (juait of good vinegar 1 talilfsiioonful of salt 

''■/i cupful of cliop|)ed wliite 1 talilespooiifii! of sugar 

onions 

Scald the vine<;ar' and spices, ])()ui' over the onions, allow to 
stand for two weeks, stj-ain, hottle, and seal. 



PICKLING 221 

Tarragon, celery, and onion vinegar are delicious when used 
in dressings and served with salads. 

Root Artichoke Pickle. — Scrub, peel and scrape four pounds 
fresh artichokes, plunge them into boiling brine (one-quarter cup- 
ful of salt to one quart of water) for five minutes. Then put into 
clear, cold water for a few minutes. Drain and cover with a spiced 
vinegar (p. 208) . Let stand over night, and pack in sterilized jars. 
Cover with the spiced vinegar and process small jars in water- 
bath for fifteen minutes and quart jars twenty-five minutes at 
180° Fahrenheit (simmering). 

Pickled Beets. — Cook small beets until tender, slip the skins 
off, pack into jars, cover with spiced vinegar, seal and process 
for thirty minutes (at simmering). Beets are better canned in 
water and made into pickle as desired. 

Sweet Pickled Carrots. — Boil young, tender carrots until 
three-fourths done, scrape, cut in thin slices, and pour a boiling 
spiced syrup over them, made by boiling together one quart of 
vinegar, one quart of sugar, one tablespoonful each of cinnamon 
and cloves, and one teaspoonful each of mace and allspice. Allow 
to stand over night in this syrup. Next morning boil for five 
minutes, cool quickly, pack into jars, strain syrup over them, 
seal, and process as for all pickles. 

Spiced Green Tomatoes. — 

G pounds of small whole green 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon 

tomatoes % tablespoonful of cloves 

4 pounds of sugar % tablespoonful of allspice 

1 pint of vinegar % tablespoonful of mace 

Small green fig or plum tomatoes are suitable for this pickle. 
Scald and peel. Make a syrup of the sugar, vinegar, and spices. 
Drop in the whole fruit and boil until the tomatoes become 
clear, pour all into trays, cool quickly, pack cold into jars, strain 
syrup over them, seal and process. 

Spiced Rhubarb. — Peel and slice one pound of rhubarb. 
Sprinkle over one cupful of sugar, and let stand over night. 
Next morning drain off the syrup, add one-half cupful of sugar, 
and put over the fire. Tie in spice-bag (six whole cloves, three 
whole allspice, a bit of mace, a six-inch stick of cinnamon, and 



ooo SLCCKSSl ri, lANMNC AM) I'KKSKItN I N'C 

a two-inch piece of ;iiiiirer root), put into syrup and Imil ten 
minutes, skim out spices, add rliultarlt, and cook until clear. 
Seal in small .jars. 

SI'ICKI) FIUMTS 

Spiced Crab Apples. — Choose round ei-ah apphs uniform in 
si/.i' ; tlo uel pare tliem. .Make ;i spiced syriij) l»y lioilini,'' to- 
u'cthei- one (piart of vine<,'ar, one <juart of su^'ar, oiu' tal)les|)Oon- 
ful of cinnamon, cloves, and one 1easpo("nful of inaec and all- 
si)ici', adil erali ap|»les. and heat Litiilly, hrin^ careful not to 
hurst tile fruit, lict stand in syi'up ovei" niirhl. pack cold, cover 
with syruj). seal, and process pint jars lifteen minutes at 180'^ 
Fahri'nlieit i simiiierini;' ) . 

Pickled Watermelon Rind. — One pound of Avateriiielon rind 
hoiled in one (piart of salt watei" ( one-cpiarter cupful of salt to 
one (juai't of water i for lifteen iiiiiiutes. I)rain well and dip 
into a cold bath until the Havor of salt is goiH'. Drain care- 
fully and stand in lime water over nijrht (two ounces of lime to 
one gallon of water). Di'aiii next moining and cook rapidly ni 
a syrui) made by boiling together one pound of sugar, one pint 
of water, one pint of vinegar, one teaspoonful each of cloves. 
cinnamon, allspice, and one-half teaspoonful of mace. Cook until 
rind becomes clear and transparent. Cool before packing, proc- 
ess as for other swtM't pickles, and seal. 

Cantaloupe Pickle (Sour). — Select under-ripe cantaloujie, 
peel, cut into sections. Place two pounds in stone jar and pour 
over a boiling mixture of one quart of vinegar, one pint of 
water, adding spices tied in spice-bag: 

1^4 teaspoonfuls of mace <i tt'as])()()iifuls of cloves 

2 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon 1 jioiind of sugar 

Next day pour vinegar oil" and hi-ing to boil. Add sugar and 
drop in the si)ices and sections of fruit and boil until trans- 
parent. Tack fruit in jars and boil vinegar mixture for fifteen 
minutes longer to make a heavier syrup. Pour it over the fruit, 
cap jai's, and ])rocess pints for fifteen minutes. 

Cantaloupe Pickle (Sweet). — Soak one and one-half pounds 
of rind for three hours in lime water (two ounces of lime to one 
gallon of water). Drain and soak in fresh watei- for one hour. 



PICKLING 223 

Make a syrup by boiling together one quart of water and one 
pint of sugar, add well-drained rind, and cook rapidly for thirty 
minutes. Allow to stand over night. Next morning add one 
cupful of sugar, one cupful of vinegar, and spice-bag (one 
tablespoonful each of cinnamon, cloves, and allspice, and one- 
half tablespoonful of mace). Cook until rind is transparent 
(about one hour). Cool and pack in small jars. Cover with the 
strained syrup and process. 

Sweet Pickled Chayote. — 

2 pounds sliced chayotes i^ ounces of whole cloves 

2 pounds of sugar 14 ounce of dried ginger root 

I ounce of stick cinnamon 

Select half-grown chayotes, a green variety preferred, and 
slice thinly cross-wise. The slices from the smaller end of each 
fruit will make the most attractive pickle. The larger pieces 
may be chopped and used instead of cabbage in Dixie relish 
(p. 204). 

The chayotes must first be cured in a 45-degree brine (about 
one pound, nine ounces of salt to one gallon of water). Place 
the sliced chayotes in a crock, cover them with the brine, and 
weight down with a plate. As soon as the brine around the 
chayotes will give an acid test with litmus paper (that is, will 
turn blue litmus paper pink) the chayotes are ready to be 
pickled. This will require three to five days. 

If not made up into pickle at once it will be necessary to seal 
them air-tight. This can be done by sealing the jar with a 
layer of cheesecloth dipped in melted paraffin over which the lid 
is placed and sealed with strips of cloth which have been dipped 
in melted paraffin. The cured vegetable will keep as long as kept 
air-tight, but the color will not be as good as if finished at once. 

Freshen the brined chayotes by standing in cold water for 
about two hours. Drain and let stand for two or three hours in 
a weak vinegar solution (one cupful of vinegar to three cupfuls 
of water). Place in stronger vinegar solution (one and one-half 
cupfuls of vinegar to one and one-half cupfuls of water) for a 
couple of hours. Then add the sugar and the spices, which are 
tied up in cheesecloth bags, to this solution. Cook the chayotes 



.>.»j srciKSSl I I. ( ANMNC AND I'KKSliin 1 NC 

ill lliis .s_\iu|) until rlcar ami t riiiiv|iarciit. Let slaiitl until i-(>l<l 
(•!• over nijilit in tin- syrup su that the slices will |)liiiii|i. (^ut a 
tiny circlf Irdin the ('cnti r ol' each slice of chayott* and ^'aniisli 
with circles of sweet red pipper. I'ack in Jars, poiir over the 
strained s>rup. and process like other pieUh-s. 

("iicuiiilicr ring's are soiiict iiiies uMi'iiishcd aiiil packed in this 
manner. 

Sweet Pickle Figs. — 

5 quarts of lij.'^- 1 <|iiart of sii^rar 

1 quart of water 1 taldespoonful of cloves 

1 pint of suj;ar 1 tcaspooiiful of allspice 

1 pint of viiiej:ar 1 ti'as|io(iiiful of iiiacf 

1 tahlespooufui of ciiniainon 

First, cook five (piarts of liirs until tender in about a :5<l- 
degree syrup (one (luart of water to one pint of su^arj. 

When figs become tender, add one (juart of su^^ar, one pint 
of vinegar, one tablespoonful of cinnamon, one tablespoonful of 
cloves, one teaspoonful of allspice, and one teaspoonful of mace, 
and cook until figs are clear and transparent. Allow them to 
stand in this syrup over night. On the following morning pack 
the fruit into jars, cover with syrup. Sterilize pint jars in 
water-bath for fifteen minutes at boiling or thirty minutes at 
180° Fahrenheit (simmering). 

Spiced Currants and Gooseberries. — 

7 pounds of fruit :} tahlespoonfuls of cinnamon 

1 pint of vinefjar 2 tal)lespoonfuls of cloves 

5 pounds of sufrar 

Make a syrup of the sugar, spices, and vinegar. Cool, add 
the fruit, and cook ra[)idly for fi-om twenty to twenty-five 
minutes. Pack into jars while hot and seal at once. 

Spiced Grapes. — Pick the grapes from the stem, wash and 
slip the ]Milp from the skins, steam the ])ulps over a vessel of 
hot water 01- in a double boiler until they can be i-ubbed through 
a coarse sieve to remove the .seeds. Combine pulp with skins 
and weigh. To each .seven pounds allow the same ]iroportions 
of sugar and s|)iees as for euri-ants and goos(0)erries given above. 
Cook all together until very thick, pack while hot, and seal at once. 



PICKLING 225 

Damson Plums and Cherries. — These fruits may be spiced 
in the same manner as currants and gooseberries (p. 224). 
The addition of one teaspoonful of mace and two teaspoon fuls of 
allspice will improve the flavor. After they are cooked in the 
syrup until tender, lift them out and cook syrup fifteen minutes 
longer, then pour over the fruit and allow to stand until cold. 
Pack, seal, and process pint jars fifteen minutes at 180° Fahren- 
heit (simmering). 

Sweet Pickled Peaches. — 

6 pounds of fruit 4 ounces of stick cinnamon 
3 pounds of sugar 2 ounces of whole cloves 

1 pint of water I ounce of ^finger 

1 pint of vinegar 

Select firm clingstone peaches. It is better to have them 
under-ripe than over-ripe. Peel by either method given under 
canning peaches (p. 126), and drop at once into a syrup which is 
made by boiling together the sugar and water, and boil for 
fifteen minutes. Cool quickly and allow to stand for from two 
to three hours. Drain off the syrup, put vinegar and spices into 
it, boil for fifteen minutes, then add the peaches and cook to- 
gether for half an hour. Let stand over night. Next morning 
drain off the syrup, boil for twenty minutes, add the peaches, and 
continue cooking for fifteen minutes longer. Cool again and let 
stand for two hours or over night, then boil all together until 
the peaches are clear and tender. Pack peaches cold into jars, 
garnish with snips of stick cinnamon, cover with strained syrup, 
seal, and process quart jars for twenty minutes at 180° Fahren- 
heit (simmering) . 

Spiced Pears. — 

7 pounds of hard pears % lemon (rind) 

3^^ pounds of sugar l^ ounce of whole cloves 

I pint of vinegar l^ ounce of whole allspice 

1 ounce of ginger root 2 ounces of stick cinnamon 

Cut pears in half, remove the seeds, and pare. Make a 
syrup of vinegar and sugar, tie the spices in small pieces of 
cheesecloth and add them to the syrup. When this mixture 
begins to simmer, add the pears and lemon rind and bring to the 
boiling-point, cool (|uickly, and allow to stand over night. The 
15 



ooj; St ifKssi- 1 I. ( \N\i\(; AND I'll I ;si:i;\ | .\( ; 

lii'Xt iiMiiiiiii;,' tli'iiiii iilV llif s\ iii|i I'l-om llir |icais into ;i |i(irccl;iiii- 
liiii'il or ;iLr;itf kiltlr, lniiiL'" tin- s\ I'lip to ImilinL'' |ii)iiit iind |)(iiir 
n\ri- I 111- pcai's, allow to stand ovcf niirlil .iLraiii. Next day drain 
and tirat tin- syi'Up as Ixd'orc, n-jx-alinir tins for four oi" fivi- ctiii- 
sc(Miti\f days, then hoil tlic syru|» down until it is just cnouudi 
to cover tlir I'liiit. ■.\(\t\ tin- I'ruit to tlir hot syrup and boil for 
thirty ininut<s, pack I lie fruit into jars, >_'arnish with snips of 
tinnanion. coNcr with llif syi'up, seal, and process for thirty 
iiuiiutfs at ISO Fahrenheit ( siininei'in<r ) . 

'J'he ]>ears may he finished in one day hy lioilinLT them in 
tlie syrup until the fruit is clear; remove the fruit and l)oil the 
syrui) down to 221 Fahrenheit, add the fruit, reheat it, and 
finish as altove. The fruit is less rich if done in this way. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliat is nipant by "picklinp"? 

2. \\ hat is tlie secret of pifkli'-iiiakiiif^? 

3. W'liy 8l)ould soiiu' vcpotables be soaked in <alt water until cured and 

others parboiled in salt water before the Ihivored vinegar or syrup 
is added '! 

4. ^^■llat strenfftli brine would you use if you were preparinfr it for cucum- 

iier piikles? liow approximate this if you ha\c no hydrometer at 
hand ? 

5. \\'!ule the pickle is in i)iine, wiiy sliould tiie container be i-ovcrcil only 

with a cloth so as to admit air? 
G. At what sta<,a^ in the preparation of jjickles are bacteria useful V Kx- 

plain tlieir action. How are these introduced into the brine? 
7. What is tlie value of the presence of an acid in the brine? How can 

you test for it? 
S. Why should the air be exclnded as soon as tlie acid is formed in the 

brine? 
!). Why is it well to turn the kegs or liarrcls containing jiirkb^s in brine? 

10. Why is a lime Itatli sometimes used? 

11. \\'hy is a soda bath sometimes used? 

12. if either bath is used, what must necessarily follow? 
1.3. What is the standard for the finished product? 

14. Give an outline of the preparation of olives. 



PICKLING 227 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Crawford, R. F., " Report on the Dutch Brined Vegetable Industry," 

British Board of Agriculture, 1902. Published by Darling & Son, 
London. 8 pence. 

2. " Creole Cook Book," 1914. The Picayune, New Orleans, La. By mail, 

$1.25. 

3. Creswell, M. E., and Powell, Ola, " Pimientos," revised 1918, Cir- 

cular No. A-84, States Relations Service, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. 

4. Fox, Minnie C, " Blue Grass Cook Book," 1904. Published by Fox, 

Duffield & Co., New York City, N. Y. $1.50. 

5. Hoffman and Evans, " The Uses of Spices as Preservatives," article in 

the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Published by 
the American Chemical Society, Easton, Pa. $0 a year. 

6. Keoleian, Ardashes H., " Oriental Cook Book," 1913. Published by 

Sully & Kleinteich, New York City, N. Y. $1.25. 

7. Powell, B. E., " How to Keep Brine Pickles," article in the Good 

Housekeeping Magazine of August, 1914. Published by Good House- 
keeping Magazine, 119 West Fortieth Street, New York City, N. Y. 
$1.50 a year. 15 cents a copy. 

8. Rahn, Otto, article on " Pickling." Published by the Canning Trade, 

Baltimore, Md. 

9. Richardson, Clifford, " Spices and Condiments," Bulletin No. 13. part 

2, 1887. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry. 

10. Round, L. A., and Lang, H. L., " Preserving of Vegetables by Salting 

and Fermenting," Farmers' Bulletin No. 881, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 1917. 

1 1. Shinkle, Charles A., " American Commercial Methods of Manufac- 

turing Preserves, Pickles, Canned Goods, etc.," 1912. Published 
by C. A. Shinkle, Menominee, Mich. $10. 

12. Skinner, W. W., " Pickling Olives and Mock Olives," Farmers' Bul- 

letin No. 296, 1907, U. S. Department of Agriculture (Experiment 
Station Work). Can be procured from the Superintendent of Docu- 
ments, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 5 cents. 

13. Powell, Ola, and Creswell, M. E., Circular No. A-81, "Canning, Pre- 

serving and Pickling," States Relations Service, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

14. Calvin, H. M., and Lyford, C. A., " Preparation and Preservation of 

Vegetables," Department of Interior, Bureau of Education, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

15. Cruess, W. v., " Tomato Paste," circular published by University of 

California, Berkeley, Cal. 



('iiAi"i"i:i: w 

DRYING FRUITS. VEGETABLES AND HERBS 

(;i:nki{.\i, mkiiiods 

'I'm: di'viri^'- i>\' fooils li;is been |ir;ic1 iced .since the Itc^niiiiiiiL' 
of civilizjit ion. 

Drying' i.s one of Xjilnic's own processes in the (li-\iii^' of 
grains, such as wheat, oats, corn, and many other seeds. Nature's 
jnethods liave been improved by tlie a|)pIication of artificial heat, 
which hastens the process. This is used to dry j)erislial)le products 
which under uatural conditions coukl not be kept. ^lodern nietli- 
ods of evaporating products afford less opportunity for the 
accumulation of dirt and for fermentation. 

Foods prepared in this way are less bulky and require less 
space for storage than in the natural condition. First-grade dried 
fruits and vegetables are about as expensive as the same product 
would be if canned, but they are lighter in weight, require 
less space in shipping, and can be packed in less expensive 
containers. 

The first commercial products which were put on the market 
were inferior in (|uality because the ])ackagcs were not oidy unsan- 
itary but the ])i'oducts had often been injured by dust and insects. 
This led to a general depreciation in the value of dried foods. 

Insufficient drying is one of the commonest causes of trouble. 
Some laws ivquire that marketable dried fruits shall contain not 
more than 2714 per cent of water, and this limit practically elimi- 
nates that particular trouble to great advantage of the industry 
as a whole. If a larger proportion of water remains, the fruit 
tends to discolor, mold, or sour. A bushel of gi-een apples, for 
example, weighs about fifty i)ounds. and shoidd make seven or 
eight pounds of white stock, four i)ounds waste, five-sixths of the 
fruit being water. Apples when dried still contain 25 per cent 
of water. 
228 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND llKRhS 229 

The coinpaiative merits of the open-air "drying" and the 
indoor "evaporating" processes hinge entirely upon the matter of 
climate. In California open-air drying is almost universally 
practiced, as the sections where fruit is dried are practically free 
from excessive moisture and rain during the entire drying season. 
In other parts of the United States the evaporating process has 
superseded open-air drying for commercial purposes. The results 
of the evaporating process are obtained in a shorter length of 
time, and the product has better keeping qualities and conse- 
quently commands a higher price than sun-dried fruits from the 
same localities. 

The evaporating process industry in the United States began 
about 1868. It is said that in Wayne County, New York, alone, 
more than 2000 small evaporators are used right in the orchards. 
The dry kiln, which is most in favor now among the larger pack- 
ers, consists of a drying bin with a slat floor built over a furnace. 
The fruit is spread on the floor and dried by the heat rising 
through and around it. 

A type of homemade dry kiln used in some sections of the 
country can be made as follows : Walls of brick or stone are built 
up a foot or two above the ground, with the front end left open 
for a fire door. The size of this kiln depends upon the amount of 
material to be dried. Many farm kilns are four feet wide and 
eight to ten feet long. At the back end a flue is built, and this 
should extend four or five feet above the top of the kiln. Iron 
bars are placed across the top of the structure, and sheet iron or 
tin placed over these. A layer of clay mortar is spread over the 
whole surface to the depth of about two inches. After applying 
the mortar a fire should be started in the furnace to bake the clay. 
The firing should be done with a slow fii'e, and any cracks formed 
during the baking should be closed up with thin mortar. The 
material to be dried on this type of a kiln is placed on large metal 
trays to the depth of two or three inches. Only a few hours are 
required for the drying process. Most any fruit or vegetable can 
be dried on this type of drier, but those most commonly dried 
are apples, peaches, cherries, and sweet corn. 

A description of the apple driers used for vegetable drying in 



>};]() SI (CKssi ri, ( ANNIN*; AM) i'i:i;si;K\ I .\( ; 

Wrstfiii New \'(ii-k is tri\<'ii ill l^'iiniicrs' Kiiilfliii No. I'll]. " l-lviip- 
(iratinii (it' Apples. " (MliiT iiitrrcst iii^r dcscript ivc inatfir ;un[ 
illust I'iit ions may he round in .\^M-iciilt in al Ivvpcriiiiciit Station 
liiillrtin No. I'll, l.y ,1. S. Colwcll, Statr < 'oil. •;.'»' ol" A^rriciilt iir.-, 
riilliiiaii. Wash, Tlic cliiit' use ol" tlir l<ilii cvaporalor in Xcw 
^'ork. I'riinsyivania. .Missouri. \'ir;_'iiiia, Wasliinj^toii, and Ar- 
kansas is for till- dryin;/ of apples, and many loiijr-ostablislicd 
jilants had never dried anythinjr else until lUlo, diirinj^ wliicli 
time many exaporators in .Monroe and Wayne e()uiities, New 
York, rail full capaeity in dr\ iiij_' cairots, cabha^n', onions, celery, 
and Ii-isli jiotatoes for the French AVar Department. These crops 
when dried were mixed tog^cther under a certain I'MiMiiula and 
jilaeed in fifteen-pound cans, which were scaled and shipped to 
the allied arm\ , where they were used in makinj^ souj) and stews 
for the soldiers. 

Tliis {rreat demand for concentrated products has stimulated 
iiivestijrations and c.xpcrimcntal work in drying foods. The 
Bureau of Chemistry in the Tnited States Department of Agri- 
culture has obtained some most interesting results by the use of 
an electric fan. It was found that products were dried rajiidly 
and retained a good color by the use of the fan. This indicates 
the value of currents of air in drying. In any system of drying 
there needs to be considered the circulation of air as well as the 
application of heat. 

Indoor Drying. — The indoor methods of drying have been 
found necessary in large parts of the I'liited States now on ac- 
count of the moisture present in the atmosphere. The following 
methods of indoor drying are sometimes used commercially: 

1. The fruit is enclosed in a chamber where heated air is cir- 
culated over and through the fruit until 7(^ to 7.") per cent of tlie 
water is extracted. 

2. Vacuum driers are sometimes used. The cvapoi-ation is 
more rapid, luit the color of the ])roduet is afl^'ectcd. If sulfuriz- 
ing is applied a better color may be preserved. 

'A. Hydraulic ])ressure for certain ])ro(lucts has been found 

to be a most eiTe<t ive method, but is not generally used in America. 

French Methods of Vegetable Drying. — The following gives 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 231 

two French nietliods of dryino: green vegetables, which form the 
basis of a large industry iu that country, some experiments with 
which are under way in the United States : 

1. The greens are carefully selected, trimmed, and put into a 
hurdle of coarse linen cloth. This hurdle is set up in a chamber 
which is warmed by means of hot air. The heat circulates through 
pipes, running back and forth through the chamber of the evapo- 
rator, at a temperature of 95° to 113° Fahrenheit, or 35° to 45° 
Centigrade, being regulated according to the condition of the 
greens. The heat should be raised gradually to prevent a loss of 
flavor and color. The advocates of this process claim that the 
heat is more evenly distributed and the temperature more uni- 
form, avoiding danger of scorching the fruit. 

2. Another operation of drying green vegetables is carried on 
in France most successfully by a gradual pressing while drying 
the product. The volume of greens lessens four-fifths by the use of 
a powerful working hydraulic press. The greens are laid into two 
strong iron boxes which are placed at the end of the mounting 
beam of the press and a strong, close-fitting pounder presses 
them. By this process a cabbage head of very great size may be 
reduced to easily fit into a letter envelope ; when again moistened 
and prepared it wall almost fill a half-bushel measure. Many 
plants treated by this method will recover their original form and 
color when again soaked in water. Some vegetable mixtures are 
pressed into forms like cakes of chocolate and simply vvrapped 
in a paper or put into tin pails. Dried spinach is packed in tin 
boxes, and a vegetable mixture for soups is sold in small card- 
board boxes. If moisture is kept away from these products they 
will keep any length of time without losing their value. Potatoes, 
carrots, peas, and beans all may be preserved in the same way. 

Sunlight Drying. — The simple method of exposure to sunlight 
was practiced universally until recently. In California and other 
sections, which are free from excessive moisture, open-air drying 
is still extensively employed. The fruit is cleaned, cut, then 
placed cut side up on wooden trays, about three by seven feet in 
size, sterilized with sulfur fumes, and placed in the sunlight 
for five days, or until sufficiently dry. 



r.v2 



SI » (KSSMI^ ( ANM.NC A.NIJ I'KI;M.K\ I M ; 



/: 



mm£ 




Fig. 117. — Drying ra(*i)berrios. 




Fig. lis. — A homemade ilrier. 



DRYIN(; FRUITS, VEGETAHLES AND HERBS 233 

It is important to i)r()tcct drying fruits from the rain, dew, 
dust, and insects. 

Placing it in a screened rack or under glass or mosquito 
netting will protect it from flying insects, and crawling insects 
may be kept away by standing the racks or table legs in pans 
of water (Fig. 117). The drying can also be expedited by a 
proper arrangement of the fruit on the trays. It should always 
be placed in single layers, because piling it up prolongs the dry- 
ing process. Evaporation of the water diminishes the bulk, so 
that later the contents of several trays may be put on one. This 
simplifies the amount of handling. During the first two days 
the pieces of fruit should be turned several times to aid in the 
process of drying. This is especially true of large fruits, such as 
peaches, pears, and apples. Simple devices for drying fruits can 
easily be made. Unless the weather conditions are ideal the 
product dried in the sun is liable to become discolored and moldy. 
This method of drying requires considerable labor. 

DRIERS OR EVAPORATORS 

Vegetables and fruits can be dried in an oven, in trays or racks 
over the kitchen stove, or in a specially constructed drier. There 
are small driers on the market which give satisfactory results. 
The small cook-stove driers or evaporators are small, oven-like 
structures, usually made of galvanized sheet iron, or of wood and 
galvanized iron. They are of such a size that they can be placed 
en the top of an ordinary wood or coal range or a kerosene stove. 
These driers hold a series of small trays on which fruits or vege- 
tables are placed after being prepared for drying. Portable 
outdoor evaporators are especially convenient when it is desired 
to dry as much as ten bushels of fruit or vegetables per day. They 
are usually constructed of wood, except the parts in direct contact 
with the heater. The homemade dry kiln used in some sections of 
the country can be cheaply and easily made (p. 229). 

A Homemade Drier (Fig. 118). — Make a frame about thirty- 
six inches long and eighteen inches wide, which will hold three 
movable shelves. The frame of the shelves or trays is made of two 
pieces of wood, one inch by eighteen inches, and two pieces, one 



srccKssKii. canmm; and i'i;i;si;k\i\(j 



inch !>>■ thirty-six iiii-hrs, ;iiiil is cdVciTd witli while chccscchith nr 
|)ii'ccs (if lloiw sai-k whii'h li;i\c Ix'cii \\;ishi(| thoruu^rhly. IMacc 
these trays ahoiit t\\el\e inches apart in the rniincwork ol" the 
drier. St leleh w ire netting'' or w liitc iiiusi|uit() iiettiiij.' over tlic top 
and sides tn keej) away the (lies and insects. Supports made of 
nails or j)ieces ot" metal and placed at tlie eorncrs of the liottom 
of the frame will pei-mil its heinjr used on the baelc of the stove 
in damp, cloudy weatlier (Fig. 118). 




Fig. 119. — Tliia coinmuuily drier wa.s built and used by suuiiiicr aclioul atuUcula 
at State Normal College, Greensboro, N. C. 

The work was supervised by the Assistant State Home Deinon- 
stratiou Aycnt. This drier holds fourteen Imsliels of fresh ma- 
terial and will aceommodate twenty-eight bushels after the Hrst 
entry of foodstuff is half dry. 

Three or four prngi-essive fannei*s in a community might haul 
their own timber to build a small lumse, using the Tiiermos or 
tireless cooker principle, that is, allowing a space of three or four 
inches between the walls of the house to be filled with sawdust. 
This holds the heat and relieves the necessity of a constant watch 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 035 

over the fire. The furnace should be phiced at the opposite end 
from the door and a stove pipe run from furnace-end to the door- 
end and back with sufficient elevation to cause good draft. A 
drier of this size and type should, with good management, diy 
from four to six bushels a day, and should pay for itself in one 
season. Wet weather has no effect on this type of drier, which 
gives it additioiuil value. 

The Building Plan of House: 

The house is G' x 12'. 

The uprights in front are 6' S". 

The uprights in back are 0' 2" to give roof 0" fall for watershed. 

Doors are fastened to 2" x 4" uprights in front. 

Doors are 2' 8" x G' 8". 

The furnace is 15" x 15" x 4' covered with two sheets (24 gauge) black 
sheet iron 2" apart — air space to prevent fire. 

The radiation is secured by ordinary stove pipe attached to furnace. 

The Heating of House. — The house is heated after the plan 
of a tobacco barn — a small furnace of rock or brick is built at one 
end and a stove pipe carries the radiation to the opposite end of 
the house and back, with an elevation of two feet above the 
furnace. This stove pipe may extend outside of the house a 
sufficient space to escape the eaves and an elbow and three or four 
joints may act as a chimney, or, if a v^himney is preferred, it may 
be built at a cost of $4 or $5 additional. 

The Plan of Trays. — There are three lattice partitions in 
the house, making four sections 32 inches wide for drying trays. 
Twelve inches above the sill place across a piece 2X4 inches, on 
which the centre uprights, 2X4 inches, and the back upright, 
2X4 inches, rest. (Put upright pieces the 2-inch way.) The 
tray bearers, 1X3 inch strips, are fastened to the uprights. The 
space between the tray bearers is filled with 2-incli strips to act 
as guides for the trays and to force the draft to circulate between 
the trays. If these spaces are left open, it will act as a flue and 
carry off the heat. The sides of the trays are % X 3 inch 
lumber, making the tray 3 inches deep. Th(> bottom of the tray 
is made of lattice strips % X IVl inches with 1 inch space between 
the strips running lengthwise. The trays have a centre partition 
to support the bottom laths and cheesecloth is used to cover the 
laths. There are 8 inches from the top of one tray to the top of 



23G 



siccKssiii, ( .\\MN(. AM) n;i;si;K\ INC 



llio iH'xl. 'Ilir fi'Mvs iii<>\i' on the ItciiTi's lik(^ a Itiin-aii drawer. 

A stii;ill (i|)i'iiiii:^ 11111^1 lie |r|l ;il top >>[ lioiisc jiisl almvc dctol-s — 
an (iiltlct I'ui- stt aiii. A M-iiidi t)|iriiiiiLr at Irniit luiiiidal i<ni must 
hr plaiiiird to let in cool air to kci-p tin- Iruit Irom sui-jitintr. 

Homemade Cook-stove Drier ( Fijr. 12<>).~ A diicr tliat can 
1h' used on a wood or coal ran^c or a kerosene stove can he easily 
and cheaply made. Dimensions: liase, 24 X !•') inches; hei<,dit. 'M't 
inches. A hasc si.\ inches hijjrh is made (jf <jralvani/ed sheet iion. 

A 

R 




Fi(i. 120. — A. Homemade cook-stove drier. H. Sectional view showinK the passage 
of the heated air. 

This hase slijirhtly flares toward the hottom and has two small 
openings for ventilation in each of the four sides. On the base 
rests a box-like frame made of one or one and one-half incli 
sti"ips of wood. The two sides are bi-aced with one and one-ipiarter 
indi strips which ai"c tlusli witli outer side anil extend on inside 
so as to form cleats on which the trays in the drier rest. These 
are placed at intervals of thi-ee inches. The frame is covered with 
tin or ualvanized sheet iron, wood sti-ips, or canvas. This is 
tackcMl to the wooden strii)s of the frame. The dooi- is fitted on 
snuill hinfjes and fastened with a latch. Tt opens wide so that the 
trays can he easily removed. Tlie bottom in the drier is made of 
a piece of perforated p:alvani/.ed sheet iron. Two inches above 
the bottom is placed a solid sheet of <ralvani/ed iron wliieh is 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 237 

three inches less in length and width than the bottom. This sheet 
rests on two wires fastened in the cornere of the drier. This 
prevents the direct heat from coming in contact with the product 
and serves as a radiator to spread the heat more evenly. 

The first tray is placed three inches above the radiator. The 
trap's rest on the cleats three inches apart. A drier of the given 
dimensions will hold eight trays. The frame of the tray is made 
of one-inch strips, on which is tacked galvanized screen wire, 
which forms the bottom of the tray. The tray is 21 X 15 inches, 
making it three inches less in depth than the drier. The lowest 
tray, when placed in the drier, is even with the front, leaving 
the three-inch space in the back. The next tray is pushed to the 
back, leaving a three-inch space in the front. The other trays 
alternate in the same way. This permits the hot currents of 
heated air to pass around and over the trays. A ventilator open- 
ing is left in the top of the drier through which the moist air 
may pass away. 

The principle of construction is that currents of heated air 
pass over the product as well as up through it, gathering the 
moisture and passing away. The movement of the current of air 
induces a more rapid and uniform drying. The upper trays can 
be shifted to the lower part, of the drier and the lower trays to 
the upper part as drying proceeds, so as to dry the product uni- 
formly throughout. 

In order to secure the best result of evaporation it is neces- 
sary to run the temperature as high as possible without injury to 
the fruit, and to keep the air in rapid circulation throughout the 
chamber. It is under these conditions that the slight chemical 
changes in perfectly evaporated fruit take place. The albumin, 
instead of being slowly dried, is coagulated and greatly assists in 
the preservation of the fruit with the richness and flavor it 
possessed in its natural state. 

It is important to know the temperature of the heat in the 
drier, and this cannot be determined very accurately except by 
using a thermometer. An inexpensive thermometer reading de- 
grees from 100° Fahrenheit to 200° Fahrenheit, or thereabout, 
can be suspended in the drier. If a themiometer is not used the 
greatest care should be given to the regulation of the heat. The 



•);;S SrcCKSSKn. CANMNc; AM) I'KKSKKV I N( ; 

Iniiiirrat HIT in tln' <iricr rises ratlirc <|iiii-kly, ami tlit- priMiui-t 
may si-urdi unlrss clusf attnit idii is Lri\«'ii. 

IHniNiJ I'KI ITS 

'I'll!' ilficd rniits arr iiol only iinporlaiil I'nods I'oi- tli<- lioiise- 
Iiuld, t)iit hccaiisc tlu'y (Mintain valiialiic fcxtd iiiati'rial in cuikm'h- 
ti'ati'd U)\}\\ tlii'y aiT ('(invciiiciit riKidstuff I'im- the t i-avclli-r and 
explorer. 

In vi'i-y diy diniatrs I'niits ai'c usually dried in tli«- sun. .Most 
fruits dried in the sun discolor unless especially tn-atcd. J-'or 
dryiujr fruits in small (|uanti1ies for home use the driei- is more 
satisfaetory. On very hot, di-y days fruit may be dried in the sun 
until surface befrins to w linUle, then finished in the driei-. Oidy 
fresh ripe fruits should Ix' used. Ripe fruits dry more quickly 
than uni-ipe and retain a better eolw. 

The ideal moisture content of dried fruits is about twenty-five 
per cent. The altility to judge accui-ately as to when tlie fi-uit has 
reached the ptopei- condition for removal from di'icr can oidy be 
gained by experience. When sufdcieiitly dried it sliould be so 
diy that it is impossible* to press water out of the freshly cut end 
of the pieces, and w ill not show any of the natural grain of the 
fruit on ])eing broken and yet not so dry that it will snap or 
crackle. It should be leathery and pliable. 

Before spreading fruit on the trays of the diici- lim> the tray 
with wrapping pai)er or cheesecloth. Tht-re is a possibility of the 
acid of the fruit acting upon the zinc. After drying, cool quickly, 
as fruit when cooled slowly shrivels and looks unattractive. 

Apples, — It is not advisable to dry early varieties of apples, 
because they lack finnness of texture. The fruit must be carefully 
pared and cored, Avith all blemishes removed. Sometimes, in 
commercial plants, after the apples are sliced they are subjected 
to the fumes of burning sulfur to bleach them and to prevent 
further discoloration. This practice is not advisable for home use. 

Apples are often sliced in rings, one-quarter of an inch thick, 
or they are quartered. The rings dry more quickly than the 
quarters (Fig. 121). Arrange the slices in single layers on the 
trays. Place these in the suji or in an evaporator until the 
apples are dry. If sunlight drying is practiced the apples should 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 339 

be brought indoors everj^ uiglit and each morning returned to 

the sun until the apples are dry. Usually this process will 

require three or four days. In the evaporator only four to 

six hours are necessary to dry the fruit. Have the temperature 

at 110^ Fahrenheit to begin with, and raise it gradually to 140"^ 

Fahrenheit. The fruit should be 

so dry that when a handful of 

slices is pressed together firmly 

into a ball the slices will be 

springy enough to separate at 

once upon being released from 

the hand. The texture of the 

fruit as it is handled should be 

soft, velvety, and leathery. Pack 

the slices neatly into pasteboard 

boxes which have been lined with 

paraffin paper or tie in paper 

sacks and store in tin boxes in 

a dry place to protect from in- 

, A A i- Fig. 121. — Sliced apples on a wooden tray. 

Dried apple cores and skins are evaporated separately in the 
same way as the fruit. When properly cured they possess 
commercial value in home and foreign markets for the manu- 
facture of jellies and vinegars. 

Apricots. — It is necessary to start the drying of apricots with 
a higher temperature (130° Fahrenheit), because they contain 
a high percentage of w^ater. After two or three hours turn 
the fruit and allow to cool for two hours. Raise the heat to 
125° F., and continue the process as for peaches (p. 241). 

Berries. — Heating the fruits carefully in a moderate oven for 
a short, while before and after sunning insures a better product 
if sunlight drying is practiced. 

Raspberries. — Black or purple raspberries are best for diy- 
ing. Pick carefully in shallow trays to prevent bruising. Sort, 
selecting only sound berries, wash lightly, and place between tea 
towels or in the sun to dry off surface moisture. Spread them 
in thin layers on the trays or racks to dry. Raise the temperature 




240 SL'Ct'KSSI I 1. I'ANMNC AM) I'llKSKKNlNG 

^Tadiijilly I'l'iiiii III! til IL'") l"'alii-t'iilirit in aliniit 1 wu Ixiiirs. l)o 
Mill i-aisr trm|)i rat iii-f ImltIiim- than lin l-'alir-rnheit until ;i coii- 
sidcraltlc portion of moist iiir lias ('va|)oi'al('<i, as otherwise there 
will be ex]){insi()M and loss of jniee liy drippinjr. This is aecoin- 
panied by loss of llavor atnl color, l-'inish ih-Nin^' l)(iTi«'S at 140^ 
for two or tlirci' iioni's. It is necessary to dry l)ci-ries fr'om four 
to live hours. 

Cherries. — Wasli, dry oil" surface moisture Ijofore spreading 
unseeded cherries in thin layers on trays, if chei-ries are seeded 
tliere will be a loss of juice. Dry from three to four hours at a 
temperature of iL'l' to Ki")"' Fahrenheit. Raise temperature 
f^'radually. 

Figs (Fig. 122"^. — 1. Select two quarts of perfect whole tigs, 
allow them to stand in a gallon of lime water (one ounce of lime 
to one gallon of water; for one hour. Remove the figs from the 
lime water and stand in clear, cold water for half an hour. Drain 
the figs well and dro]) tiiem into boiling syrup. ]Make syrup bv 
boiling together one quart of sugar and one quart of water for 
ten minutes. Cook the figs rapidly in this syrup for forty or fifty 
minutes, remove the figs from the syrup, drain and place on trays 
or platters in the sun for several days, or place them in single 
layers on trays in the evaporator for three hours at a temperature 
from 130° to 150° Fahrenheit. If dried in the sun the figs should 
be turned each day and the tray should be brought indoors at 
night. It will be necessary to have the tray covered with glass or 
cheesecloth to protect the fruit from insects. During the time the 
figs are drying, if it should rain, keep them in an oven at a 
very low temperature. 

2. Select three quarts of finn, sound figs and droj) them into 
boiling lye solution (two tablespoonfuls of lye to two quarts of 
water) for one minute. Lift them out carefully and put through 
two cold baths, then drop into lime water, using one ounce of lime 
to a gallon of water; allow the figs to stand in this lime water 
for an hour, drain well, and rinse in clear water. Drop them 
into a syrup W'hich you have made by using one quart of sugar 
and one quart of water, cook the figs in this syrup rapidly until 
thev are clear, drain, and place them stems up on the platter in 




ill: tSj — DryiriK tif-'s in », alitornia. 




DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 241 

the sun and allow them to remain in the sun or in a cool oven 
until they are tiioroughly dried. Three to four hours in an 
evaporator at a temperature from 130^ to 150° Fahrenheit will 
dry them sufficiently. 

Peaches (Fig. 123). — Peaches are usually cut in halves, and 
may be evaporated with or without being peeled. Cut in halves, 
pit, lay in trays pit side up, and dry at a temperature of 110° 
Fahrenheit to 140° Fahrenheit for four to six hours. Sometimes 
they are dropped into a thin syrup before being dried. This gives 
a better flavor and color with some varieties of peaches. 

Pears. — Pare, core, and cut fruit into eighths. As pears dis- 
color quickly, do not let stand long before drying. To prevent 
discoloration, as the fruit is prepared it may be dipped for one 
minute into a cold salt bath, using one ounce of salt to one gallon 
of water. Dry off surface moisture and put into the evaporator, 
having the temperature 110° Fahrenheit, raising temperature 
gradually to 150° Fahrenheit. Dry for four to six hours, and 
longer if necessary. Pears may also be steamed ten minutes be- 
fore drying. 

Plums. — Select medium ripe plums, cover with boiling water, 
and cover the vessel and let stand twenty minutes. Small, thin- 
fleshed varieties are not suitable for drying. Drain, remove sur- 
face moisture, and dry for four to six hours, raising the tem- 
perature gradually from 110° to 150° Fahrenheit. 

Storing Dried Fruits. — After trays are removed from the 
evaporator, such fruit as apples, peaches, etc., is put into bins, 
where it is stirred occasionally and allowed to remain until it 
passes through the sweating process. The fruit is again sorted ac- 
cording to appearance and quality before storing. The purpose 
in storing a dried product is to protect it from moistvire, dust, 
and insects. Sometimes spoilage is caused by lack of proper 
storage. Any food which has been properly dried will keep in 
paper bags suspended from the ceiling of a fairly dry room in- 
definitely unless attacked by insects. The bags should be double- 
tied or sealed (see p. 247) to protect them from the dust. A 
safer way to store dried fruits would be to put these bags into tin 
buckets or boxes with tightly fitting covers. 
16 



242 SUCCKSSKl'L CANMNC AM) I'ltKSKlU I N(; 

Preparation of Dried Fruits for Use. — l-'ailiirc to serve di-ied 
fruits iu attractive ways is due usually tu nut soaking' t lieiii Inuj^ 
cuou';li hel'oi'e edokiiifr, and to addiufx sufjar too early iu tiieir 
preparation. Dried fruits, like dried ve<retables, require Ion}? 
soakiii;,' iu pleuty of water, and unist lie allowed to come slowly 
to a lioil and then to l)oil t,'enlly until tlie I'lMiit is plump and 
tender. 

DRVIXr; VK(JKTABIJ<:S 

Equally as p:reat cai'e should be given to tlio soleelion and 
preparation of vegetables for drying as for eanuing. To secure 
a fine quality of dried products much depends upon having the 
vegetables absolutely fresh, young, tender, and perfectly clean. 
Wash all vegetables and clean well. If steel knives are used in 
paring and cutting, have them clean and bright, so as not to dis- 
color the vegetable. 

After vegetables are prepared properly they are then blanched. 
The blancli gives a more thorough cleaning, removes the strong 
odor and flavor from certain kinds of vegela])les, and softens and 
loosens the fiber. This allows the moisture in the vegetable to 
evaporate more quickly and uniformly. It also quickly coagulates 
the albuminous matter in the vegetables which helps to hold in 
the natural flavors. Blanching consists of plunging the vegetable 
into boiling water for a short time. Use a wire basket or cheese- 
cloth bag for this. After blanching the required number of 
minutes, drain well and remove surface moisture from vegetables 
by placing between two towels or by exposing to the sun and air 
for a short time. 

The vegetable thus prepared is spread in a thin layer on the 
trays of the drier. The temperature for drying should be rather 
low to prevent scorching the ju-oduct. For most vegetables, after 
surface moisture is removed, begin drying at a temperature of 
110°. Fahi-enheit. Increase temperature gradually from 110° to 
145° Fahrenheit. Complete drying for most vegetables in two or 
three h(mrs. The time required for drying vegetables varies; 
however, it can easily be determined by a little experience. The 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 343 

material should be stirred or turned several times during the 
drying in order to secure a uniform product. 

Green String Beans.-r-All varieties of string beans can be 
dried. Wash and string beans carefully. The very young and 
tender string bean can be dried whole. Those that are full 
grown should be cut in one-quarter to one-inch lengths with a 
vegetable slicer or a sharp knife. It is better to cut beans than 
snap them. They are then put in a bag of cheesecloth or in a 
wire basket and blanched in boiling water for six to ten minutes, 
depending on the maturity of the bean. One-half teaspoonful 
of soda may be added to each gallon of boiling water to help set 
the green color in the bean. Remove surface moisture according 
to directions given above. Begin drying at a temperature of 110° 
Fahrenheit and raise temperature gradually to 145° Fahrenheit. 
"Wax beans are dried in the same manner as the green string 
beans. 

Lima Beans. — Lima beans can be shelled from the pod and 
dried. If gathered before maturity, when young and tender, wash 
and blanch for five to ten minutes. Length of time for blanching 
depends upon size and maturity of bean. Remove surface 
moisture and dry for three to three and one-half hours at the tem- 
perature given for string beans. 

Dry Shelled Beans. — Different kinds of beans, after maturing 
and drying on the vines, can be treated as follows: Shell, wash, 
and spread in thin layers on the trays of the drier and heat ten 
minutes, beginning at 160° Fahrenheit and gradually raising the 
temperature to 180° Fahrenheit. This high temperature will 
destroy all insect eggs that might be on the beans. Cowpeas or 
any field pea can be treated in the same way. Cool and store 
carefully. It might be added that the heating of the bean or 
pea destroys its vitality and thus treated cannot be used for seed 
purposes. 

Garden Peas. — When drying the very young and tender sugar 
peas, use the pod also. Wash and cut in one-quarter inch pieces, 
blanch in boiling water six minutes, remove surface moisture, 
and dry the same length of time and at the same temperature as 



244 RrCTESSI I L ( ANMNC AND I'IMiSKIlN I NT. 

slriiii^' Ijfjuis. It is not iirccssary Id usr sodji wlini Idjiiicliiiitr [x-as. 

'I'lic frardrii [KM, which has ;i iiKii-cdililr pod. is shcHtMl and 
hhiMchcd fdi- IhiTi' to li\c iiiimilcs. Kciiiovc sui-facc moisture, 
spread in a siiiLrlr layer on ti-ays. and (\vy for three to three and 
one halt' Imnrs. i*>e;_'-in drying'- at ll<t l-'ahi'tnlicit . I'aise teni- 
peratnri' \-ei'y slowlx" in ahoiit one and oiio-lialf liours to 145° 
Faiireniieit. ("ontiinie dr_\in'_'- one and one-half or two hours at 
145° Fahrenheit. 

Sweet Corn. — Select very youn^' and tender- coi-n, and pro- 
pare at once after {^^alherinjr. P>oil or steam on the eob six to 
ci<j:]it minutes to sot the milk. To impi'ove flaxor a toaspoonful 
of salt to a fjallon of w atei- may 1)0 used. Drain well and cut corn 
from the cob, using a very sharp and flexible knife. Cut grains 
fine, only lialf way down to tlie eob, and serape out the remainder 
of grain, being careful not to scrape off any of the ehafV next 
to the cob. Dry frcmi three to four hours at a tempei-ature of 
110° to 145° Fahrenheit. AVlien field corn is used, good, plump 
roasting ear stage is the proper degree of ripeness. A pound of 
dried corn i)er dozen ears is an average yield. This nietlmd gives 
a delicious pi-oduct which is easily kept. 

Corn ina\' be dried in the sun. Di'y in o\imi for ten to fifteen 
minutes and finish di-ying in the sun. Sun (li-\ing is. of course, 
not satisfactory in damp weather, and the dried product will be 
darker in color and not as attractive in appearance. When dried 
in the sun it should be heated in the oven to kill insect eggs before 
storing. 

Carrots and Parsnips. — Clean, sci-ape oi- i)are. and slice in 
one-eighth inch slices. Blanch f'oi' six niiiuites, remove surface 
moisture, and dry for two and one-half to three liours. Begin 
drying at 110 Falii-enheit, and raise the temperature gi'adually 
to 150' Fahreidieit. Kohlrabi, celeriac, and salsify are dried by 
the same method. 

Beets. — Boil the wdiole beets without peeling until a little 
more than three-fourths done. Dip in cold water, peel, and slice 
in one-eighth or one-quai'ter inch slic(\s. Dry foi" two and one- 
half to three liours at a temperature of 110= to 150^ Fahrenheit. 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 245 

Okra. — Wasli, blanch for three rainutes in boilinp^ soda water 
(one-half teaspoonfiil of soda to one gallon of water), and 
dry for two to three hours at a temperature of 110° to 140° 
Fahrenheit. Dry young and small tender pods whole. Older 
pods should be cut into one-quarter inch slices. Small, tender 
pods are sometimes strung on a string and hung over the stove 
to dry. If dried in this manner, heat in the oven before storing. 
Onions and Leek. — "Wash, peel, and slice onions in one-eighth 
to one-quarter inch slices. To avoid any unpleasantness, peel and 
slice holding under water. Blanch in boiling water for five min- 
utes, remove surface moisture, dry for two and one-half to three 
hours, beginning at 110° Fahrenheit and raising temperature 
gradually to 140° Fahrenheit. Leek is cut in one-quarter inch 
strips and dried as onions. 

Peppers. — Peppers may be dried by splitting on one side, re- 
moving seed, drying in the air, and finishing drying in the drier 
at 140° Fahrenheit. A more satisfactory method is to place 
peppers on a biscuit pan in a hot oven and heat until the skin 
blisters. Peel, split in half, take out seed, and dry at a tempera- 
ture of 110° to 140° Fahrenheit. Li drying thick-fleshed pep- 
pers like the pimiento, do not increase heat too quickly, but dry 
slowly and evenly. Small varieties of red peppers may be spread 
in the sun until wilted, and the drying finished in the drier, or 
they may be entirely dried in the sun. 

Pumpkin and Summer Squash. — Pare and cut in abovit one- 
half inch strips and blanch for three minutes, remove surface 
moisture, and dry slowly for three to four hours, raising tempera- 
ture from 110° to 140° Fahrenheit. 

Vegetable Soup Mixtures. — Each vegetable used in the soup 
mixture is prepared and dried separately. They are put together 
in dift'erent proi)ortions, the desired vegetable predominating. A 
combination of several vegetables makes a most desirable soup 
mixture. Those most often used are carrots, cabbage, onions, 
celery, and okra. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage is shredded or cut into strips a few inches 
long. Blanch for ten minutes, drain, remove siirface moisture, 



•>|(; SrcCKSSFlL CANMNd AM) I'l; i:si;i;\ | NC 

;iii<l (liy lor- tlicci' lumis ;it ;i lciii|M'i-;it iiit- (»!' lid to 1 l.")^ 
l''.iJll-ciiiirif. 

Mushrooms. — \V;isli I'iiiil:! willi a suit dofli in liikcwann salt 
watci- and (lidp into clean salt walcr. The lamella' are not re- 
moved I'rom the partly closed muslii-oftms. hut arc removed ii-om 
the lar.i^cr open ones Ifom which also the outer skins are remo\-e{|. 
Drain and cover for one-hair hour with lioilinir watci- lo whicji 
one-hall' cup \ineL;ar and one-hall' teaspoon salt liavr licen adih-d 
for each (piart of watt-r. 

J)rain and wrini; well in a cloth, then spread on a board (not 
pine). I>i'y in dral't and sunshine For two days, finish in an 
oven for a few hours at a teini)ei'atui'e ol' 100" Fahreidieit. Pack 
into ho.xcs lined with pai'chnient paper and seal ti^rhtly or tie in 
linen sacks and hani;- in a dry. airy place. Occasionally examine 
and subject them to wann air to prevent mildew. Soak in luke- 
warm water or milk before nsin?'. Dried fnntri may also be 
pounded in a mortar. Pack in well-stop|)ered bottles. rs<' for 
thickening- soujis, sanecs or gravies, .stewi'd tillings for ernstades 
or similar di.shes where nnishi-oom flavoi- is desired. 

Dried Celery and Parsley Leaves. — ( 'elery and parsley 
leaves can be dried in the shade or for two hours in a cool oven 
(110° to 130° Fahrenheit). The temperature should be raised 
gradually. These leaves nuiy be mixed in equal pai'ts and pow- 
dered. Put the dried leaves through a sjnce mill, or use a rolliui: 
pin for pulverizing them. This c(mibination makes a good sea- 
soning for soups and stuffings. It should be stored in cans or 
jars aii'-tight, otherwise it will soften on standing. 

Legumes. — Di-ied mature legtimes are not only ehea]). but 
they are lieh in nourishment, liaked beans, for example, furnish 
more initriment than beef costing two or three times as nuich. 

Storing Dried "Vegetables. — AVhen vegetables are first taken 
from the drier, if completely di'ied they are very brittle. They 
are more easily handled and are in better condition for storing 
if allowed to stand one to three lioui's to ab.sorb enoutrh moisture 
to make them more pliable bel'oi-e putting them into bags or 
storing otherwise. If it is not convenient to store products innne- 
diately, and they are allowed to stand for si'veral days, they 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 247 

should be heated to 160° Fahrenheit to destroy any insect eggs 
that might be on them. Care should be taken not to heat the 
vegetable higher than 160° Fahrenheit. 

Dried vegetables should always be stored in moisture-proof 
containers and in a dry place, free from dust and dirt. The best 
container is a tin box, bucket, or can fitted with a tight cover. 
Perhaps the most convenient and cheapest container is the small 
paper bag. A small amount should be put into each bag, just 
enough for use in one or two meals. This will prevent the opening 
of any dried product that cannot be consumed in a short time. 
The upper part of the bag is twisted to form a neck. The neck 
is bent over and tied tight with a string. Dip a small brush into 
melted paraffin and paint the entire bag. This makes the bag 
practically moisture and insect proof. To further protect from 
insect ravages, label and pack bags in a tin container with a 
tight-fitting cover. A large number of bags can be stored in 
an ordinary lard can. A glass jar with a tight seal is a good con- 
tainer for dried products. Paraffin-coated paper containers of 
various sizes can be found on the market. If such containers are 
used they should also be stored as the paper bags. 

All dried products should be examined occasionally, and, upon 
the first appearance of insects, spread in thin layers in the sun 
until insects disappear; heat to a temperature of 160° Fahrenheit 
and restore carefully. 

Preparation of Dried Vegetables for Use. — 1. Soak for sev- 
eral hours in warm or cold water to absorb the moisture lost 
through evaporation. 

2. Drain and boil such vegetables as peas, beans, and spinach 
in soda Avater, using about one-eighth teaspoonful of soda to one 
quart of water. 

3. One tablespoonful of lemon juice added to dried beans after 
soaking them adds much improvement in flavor. 

4. Add seasoning to the dried vegetables to make them more 
palatable — celery, mustard, onions, cheese, nutmeg, etc. 

5. Dried vegetables are used in soup, and most deliciously 
flavored thick puree may be made of them. Four ounces of dried 
soup vegetables (sliced carrots, potatoes, cabbage, onions, etc.) will 
be sufficient to make three quarts to one gallon of vegetable soup. 



248 SL'CCE.SSI- 1 L ( ANMNc; .\M) IM:KSK11\ I N(i 

I)KVIN(; IIKKUS 
"()|il wliii ciiii tfll tilt' hiddcji |Mi\vcr ol llcihM, 
And iiii;^lil (if iiiaj,'ic h|)rlll " — S/iciitKr. 

'i'lir aiicii'iit lioiiscktM-ptT was lar more ijitcrt-sti'd th.in tin- 
iiiodfi'ii one in <;at liciiiiL;' and di'vin;^' liri- own licrlis at tin- I'i^dit 
si'ason Joi- (Mdinai\\- and ini-dicinal uses, in llif olden days licrhs 
were I'dicd npdn to iiivc variety to the daily nienn and I'or toni(r 
ijiialities, while to-day the llavor only is the dominant thonj^lit. 
A dash of i)re[iared '■kitchen hoiuiuet"' will answer all purposes. 

French and Italian cooks excel in the skilful use of the variety 
ol' herbs in their eookin^;', while only three oi- four herbs — parsh'v, 
mint, sane, and thyme — are u-eneraily used by the Ameriean cooks. 

The cultivation of herbs has been considered within the 
wonuurs domain because of the close relationship between herbs 
and cookery. In some ca.ses it has been found profitable as a com- 
mercial enterprise. The Durham mustard which is now populai" 
on the market was first prepared by a woman. Iler ingenuity in 
making mustard flour and then ])re|)aring the Dui'ham mustard 
has won for her a world-wide re])\itation. ^lost herbs are easily 
cultivated, since they are not disturlx'd by insects because of the 
es.sential oils found in them. 

The old time garden herbs are part of every well regulated 
kitchen garden. 

In many communities herbs might l)c grown eoiiperatively, 
each kitchen garden to contain herbs agreed upon in advance. 

Picking. — Herbs should be gathered in the morning after the 
dew has disappeared. The blossoms of catnip and like herbs arc 
gathered. The ])elief that herbs should be gathered oidy when in 
blossom is probably an erroneous one. When only the leaves are 
desired to dry, they should be gathered wliile they are young and 
tender. If the leaves are picked Avhen they are young and fresh a 
new growth continues to come, and these are as good as the first 
picking. 

Every good cook keeps on hand "The Boutjuet Garni " or the 
TTei-b 1 )Ouquet. A spray of parsley, sprig of tltyine. a bay leaf, and 
a branch of celery constitute a good "Herb Bouquet," and it 
will flfivor about one gallon of soup if cooked with it for an hour. 

Drying. — Often the Avhole plant has to be dried in oi-der not 



DltYlXU FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 2-i9 

to shake oft' the seed pods. Stems and seeds may l)e spread out to 
diy ou sheets of cotton cloth, or dried on ti'ays of wire mesh or in 
a fruit evaporator, when one is available. Herbs which have been 
allowed to dry in the shade for one day can be quickly finished 
by subjecting them to a temperature of about 110= to 130° 
Fahrenheit in an oven or an evaporator. The length of time 
varies with the kind of herb being dried. The following herbs 
will dry sufficiently in the time given, if the temperature of 110° 
to 130° Fahrenheit is kept uniform : 

Parsley for ahout 1 hour ;]0 minutes 

Sage for about 1 hour 10 minutes 

Mint for about 1 hour 

Thyme for about 1 hour 

Savory for about 1 liour 

Marjoram for about 4.") minutes 

Tarragon, basil, chives, and spearmint can also be dried. 

Fell. — Young, tender sassafras leaves are gathered in the early 
spring, dried and powdered. The French use this in gumbo and 
for seasoning and thickening gravies and sauces. 

Sweet Bay Leaves. — Sweet bay leaves are gathered while still 
young and tender and dried in the shade and bottled to use for 
seasoning. Laurus nobilis is the bay leaf of commerce. 

Peppers. — Small hot peppers are strung on cord and hung up 
to dry slowly in tlie shade. 

Storing Herbs. — An attractive way to pack herbs is to wrap 
them carefully in wax paper and place in small cans or packages. 
Dried leaves may be packed in glass jars, and powdered herbs 
are more often packed in narrow necked bottles. The herbs are 
less liable to become moldy if they are kept dry and closed from 
the dust. When leaves and blossoms are to be packed they must 
be clean and free from stems. Herbs such as anise, coriander, 
caraway, fennel, lovage, and horehound are often used in confec- 
tionery. Angelica is valued for its stems, and it is sometimes 
candied. Iris root, dried lavender, sweet grass, clover blossoms, 
and rose petals have been used from time immemorial by house- 
wives to perfume their linen closets. 

Medicinal Herbs. — Since domestic medicinal remedies are no 
longer made the growing of medicinal herbs is not common, but 
it might still be made a source of income in a limited w^ay. 



oijo srccKssi-i I, ( \\M.\(; AMI I'l; lisi ;i;\ I N( ; 

A II ;ii'l idc ill 1 lie I iiitt'd Stat<-s ^'rai-liook nl' t lir I )t|(ai-t iiicnl of 
Afrririilliirc Tim- \'.H):] stales: "As a result (if sut-li a study ol' llu- 
situation as lias thus tar been j)i'acti<'al)li', tin- Soutlit-ni States 
st'ciii to olVer many advaiita^'es for the pcosiieet ive (lru<r <rn)\ver. 
The loiiir-Lirowiii^' season neech'd I'm' many druL'' phinis, tile low 
Iiriee of labor, and the usual low juice of land eoiiihine to make 
sections of the South sei-ni pronusin^' in this connection." 

Herbs which can sometimes be sold to local druj-'iiists arc as 

follows : 

IJoiii'sct Motherwort W iiil^Tfirecn l<a\c.s 

Catnip l^asswood llowcr Ked raspberry leaves 

"Mullein Tansy leaves and hlossoms Jinison-weed leaves 

Safie Yarrow leaves and blossoms Red clover 

T.dl.clia 

Bark. — Tiio bai-k is j)eeletl, so that none of the wood is left, 
lilaekhaw, cherry-, poplar, and Wahoo barks may be sold in small 
(liiantitie.s and usually bi-in<i- from three to eight cents a pound. 
In some eases the bark of the root is called for, such as the bark 
of the Wahoo and Blackhaw roots, and these brinjr from ten to 
fifteen cents per pound. 

Seeds. — Pumpkin, sunflower, lobelia, prickly asli berry, cara- 
way, dill, l)urdock seed, and corn-silk are sometimes sold for three 
to fifteen cents per pound. 

Roots. — (Jinsenji", burdock, bloodroot, yellow dock, mandrake. 
Indian turnip or spikenard root, Jack-in-the-pulpit, and sarsapa- 
rilla often sell for three to ten cents per pound. 

IIO:\rE STORAGE OF VECETAHI-ES 

To those persons fortunate enough to i)oss(^ss land for the 
^•rowing of vegetables sul'ficicnt in ((uantity for the needs of the 
family, storage is an economic necessity. Likewise it is an eco- 
nomic necessity to grow vegetables to store. A half-acre garden 
should produce far moi-e vegetables than the average famil}'- 
can consume during the maturing period of the crops. Only a 
small portion of the garden .should be jihmted to those vegetables 
which must be used as soon as they reacli maturity. The re- 
mainder should lie devoted to crops that are 1n be canned, dried, 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 251 

or stored. It is comparatively easy to keep by storing such vege- 
tables as potatoes, beets, carrots, parsnips, salsify, turnips, cab- 
bage, celery, onions, sweet potatoes, dry beans, and dry lima 
beans. Some of the crops may be stored in the cellar under the 
dwelling, in pits or banks, or in caves or outdoor cellars. Others 
can be kept in any dry place, such as the pantry or attic. 

The Storage Room in the Basement. — Many houses are 
heated by a furnace in the cellar. The pipes are, as a rule, car- 
ried under the joist, thus warming the cellar to some extent. 
For this reason it is best to partition off a small room in one 
corner of the cellar to serve as a storage-room for potatoes, beets, 
carrots, parsnips, salsify, and turnips. If possible, this room 
should have at least one window for the purpose of regulating 
the temperature. The floor should not be concreted, as the nat- 
ural earth makes better conditions for the keeping of vegetables. 
Bins may be constructed for the various products, or they may 
be stored in boxes, baskets, or barrels. This room will also serve 
as a storage place for fresh fruits and canned goods. The vege- 
tables to be stored should be harvested when the ground is dry, 
and allowed to lie on the surface long enough for the moisture to 
dry off before placing them in storage. The tops should be re- 
moved from beets, turnips, carrots, and salsify before placing 
them in storage. 

Outdoor pits or banks are very generally used for keeping 
potatoes, beets, carrots, turnips, parsnips, cabbage, and salsify. 
Select a well-drained location and make an excavation. This is 
lined with straw, leaves, or similar material, and the vegetables 
placed in a conical pile on the material. The vegetables are then 
covered with straw or similar material, and finally with earth to a 
depth of several inches. The depth of the earth covering is de- 
termined by the severity of the winters in the particular locality. 
It is well to cover the pits with straw, corn fodder, or manure dur- 
ing severe weather. Such pits keep the above vegetables very well, 
but have the objection that it is hard to get the material out in 
cold weather, and where the pit is once opened it is desirable to 
remove the entire contents. For this reason several small pits 



252 SUC'CKSSFUL i:ANN1N(; and rRKSKll\ INQ 

ratlicr than one lar^'f oin' sliuuld be ronstnictod so thai lh«' entire 
coiitciifs may he n'moved a1 oiir time. Instead of storinj^ each 
crop in a pit by ilseif, it is better to place several ve«;etables in 
the same pit, so that it will be necessary to ojx'n oidy one pit to 
get a sup])ly ot" all of them. In storin;.' several crops in the same 
pit it is a jrood plan to separate them with straw, leaves, or other 
material. The vey:etables from the small pit may be placed in the 
basement storaf?e-rooni, where they can be easily secured as needed 
for tile table. 

Cabbage may be stored in a special kind of l)unk or pit. The 
excavation is made long and narrow and about the same dejjth as 
for tlu' otlier vegetal )les. The cabbages are pulled and placed 
in rows in the pit with the heads down and roots up. The whole 
is covered with dirt ; no straw or litter need be used. These 
pits are made as long as desired, as it is possi])le to remove por- 
tions of the stored product without disturbing the remainder. 
Cabbage need not be covered as deeply as potatoes, as slight freez- 
ing does not injure the cabbage. The heads of cabbage are some- 
times stored in banks or pits in a manner similar to potatoes, 
turnips, etc. This method is open to the same objection as when 
it is used for potatoes : it is hard to get at the material when it 
is needed. Another method of storing cabbage consists in setting 
the whole plant in trenches side by side with the roots do^vn and 
as close together as they can be placed. Dirt is thrown over the 
roots and against the stalks to the depth of several inches. A low 
fence is built around the storage place, and rails, scantling, or 
other supports laid across the top. About two feet of straw or 
other material is then piled on top of the storage pit. 

Celery may be stored in a modified type of outside pit, or in 
the row where it is growm. AVhcn stored in a ]iit or trench the 
plants are taken up and set side by side in a shallow pit as close 
together as it is feasible to pack them, and wide boards set up 
along the outside of the pit. Dirt is banked against these boards, 
and the top covered over with corn fodder or similar material. 
"When celery is kept in the row where it is grown the earth is 
banked up around the plants as the weather gets cold. "When 
freezing weather occurs the dirt sliould be brought to the tops 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 253 

of the plants and the ridge covered with coarse manure, straw or 
fodder, hpld in place by means of stakes or boards. 

Outdoor Caves or Cellars. — Outdoor caves or cellars are 
superior to banks or pits in many respects. They require no 
more labor to store the vegetables than an indoor cellar, yet 
give a uniform and low temperature during the entire year. They 
possess practically all the advantages of the bank or pit, yet may 
be entered at any time during the winter for the removal of any 
portion of the stored product without endangering the keeping 
quality of the material that remains. These storage cellars are 
usually made partially under ground, although in the southern 
portion of the country they are usually entirely above ground. In 
sections where severe freezing occurs it is well to have the cellar 
partially under ground. In order to avoid steps down to the level 
of the floor, with the consequent extra labor in storing and re- 
moving the vegetables, a side-hill location is desirable for the 
cellar. An excavation is made into the hill of the approximate 
size of the cellar. The dirt from this excavation may be used 
for covering the roof and for banking against the sides of the 
structure. A frame should be erected by setting posts in rows in 
the bottom of the pit near the dirt walls, sawing these off at a uni- 
form height, placing plates on top of the posts, and erecting 
rafters on these plates. The whole should be boarded up on the 
outside of the posts, with the exception of a space for a door 
in one end. The whole structure, except the door, is covered with 
dirt and sod. The thickness of the covering will be determined by 
the location ; the colder the climate the thicker the covering. 
The dirt covering may be supplemented by a layer of manure, 
straw, corn fodder, etc., in winter time. Outdoor cellars are 
usually left with dirt floors, as a certain amount of moisture is 
desirable. These cellars may also be made of concrete, brick, 
stone, or other material. Such cellars are to be found in many 
sections of the country, and provide almost ideal storage facilities 
for potatoes, beets, turnips, carrots, parsnips, salsify, and celery. 

Sweet potatoes should be thoroughly matured before harvest- 
ing, dug while the ground is dry, carefully handled, and thor- 
oughly cured by holding them at a temperature of 80° to 85° 



2,')! sri'CKSSI I 1. ( .\NMN(i AM) I'ltKSKKN INC 

Falu-t'iilu'it l"(tr a week oi- ten days al'tci- liai-vcstiii^'. At'lcr lliis 
tlioy should he stored in a jilarc wIkic the ti'iii|icia1 lire remains 
ill the iici^diltiirliiMid nt' .").'» I'';diiruli('it . Siii'li a loi-alinii is usually 
iirar the fiiniaiM' in the cellar, or near tin- I'liniacc •■liiiiiiicy on 
the st'coiid lldor ol' tlir house, 'i'liepe is lilfic merit in wrajipin^ 
tlicm ill |)a|)er or hiiryiuLT tlieni in sand. Sweet potatoes are 
stored in outdoor jiits or lianl\s, hut t his iin-tliod is not to be rccf)m- 
meiided except where no other facilities are availahle. Sweet 
potatoes stored in pits are not as ^'ood in ipiality as those stored 
in houses. 

Onions slioiild he well iiiatiired before liaivestinir. and should 
lie allowed to become tliorou<.dily ilvy before being stoi'ed. They 
may be i)iit up in baskets, crates, or ba<rs, and placed in a cool, di-y 
place. The attic is better than the cellar for storing onions. Tem- 
peratures slightly below the fi-eezintz' -point do not injure tliem. 

Beans, Peas, and Other Dried Products. — Such vegetables as 
may be kej)t in the dry state should be grown to as great an extent 
as possible. Various kinds of beans, including lima beans, should 
be allowed to dry on the vines. Lima beans should be gathered 
as they mature, and ])lace(l in a warm, dry place until dry enough 
to shell. Navy beans and kidney beans are usually harvested 
when a maximum number of ])ods are mature and the vines cured 
like hay, after which they are threshed or shelled. Peas are 
handled in the same way as navy beans. After the beans and peas 
ai'c threshed or shelled and dried off they should be placed in 
bags and Ining in some dry place, such as a closet or attic. 

(H'l'^STiOXS 

1. What adviintaf^cs liavc driod vejjetablps aiul fruits over cauiKMi ones? 

2. Is tlicre any advantage in tliis moans of preservation in tlie lionic? 

3. State three essential steps in the dryinp: of herbs, ve<,'etai)ies. or fruits. 

4. Wliat special care sliould be taken in tlie storage of dried products? 

5. What are the principal causes of an unsatisfactorily dried product? 
f). Why should the use of herbs be encourajjed in this country? 

7. Suprpest as many ways as possil)le for tlio use of dried voiretablos in the 

diet. 
S. What s|)ecial points sliould l)e considered in the preparation of them? 
'.}. What mistakes arc often made in the preparation of dried fruits for 

servin''? 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 255 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Abel, Ambrose, " Preservation of Food," 1857. Published by Case, 

Lockwood & Co., Hartford, Conn. 

2. Beattie, James H., "Home Storage of Vegetables," 1917, Farmers' 

Bulletin No. 879, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D, C. 
'S. Caluwell, J. S., "Evaporation of Apples," Bulletin 1:51. May, 1!)IG. 
I'ublished by State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash. 

4. CORBETT, L. C, " Raspljerries," 1!)05, Farmers' Bulletin' 213, United 

States Department of Agriculture. Can be procured from the Supt. 
of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 5. cents. 

5. " Creole Cook Book." Publislied by The Picayune, New Orleans, La. 

$1.25. • 
(i. Cruess, W. v., " Drying Fruits and Vegetables, 1917, Methods of Food 
Preservation III." University of California, Berkeley, California. 

7. Gould, H. P., and Beattie, James H.. " Commercial Evaporation and 

Drying of Fruits," 1917, Farmers' Bulletin No. 903, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

8. GiBBS, Walter M., " Spices and How to Know Them," 1909. Published 

by the Matthews-Northrup Works, Buffalo, N. Y. 

9. Henkel, Alice, " Flowers, Fruits and Seeds," 1913, Bulletin 26, B. P. I.; 

" Weeds Used in Medicine," 1904, Farmers' Bulletin 188, United 
States Department of Agriculture. Can be purchased from Superin- 
tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, 
D. C. 5 cents each. 

10. Lewis, C. 1., and Brown, W. S., " Fruit and Vegetable By-products," 

1914, College Bulletin No. 128. Published by Oregon Agricultural 
College, Corvallis, Ore. 

11. Marshall, Lucile, "Garden Herbs: Culture and Uses," The Ohio 

Farmer, January 8, 1916, vol. 137, No. 2. Published by the Lawrence 
Publishing Company, Cleveland, Ohio. 

12. Plat, Sir Hugh, " Delights for Ladies," 1632. Sold by J. Boler, London. 

13. Perxot, E. F., " Preserving Wild Mushrooms," 1908, Experiment Sta- 

tion Bulletin 98. Published by Oregon Agricultural College, Cor- 
vallis, Ore. 

14. True, Rodney H., " Cultivation of Drug Plants in the United States," 

Yearbook Separate No. 325, Agricultural Yearbook of 1903, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture. Can be purchased from Superintendent of 
Documents, Governinent Printing Office, Wasliington, D. C. 75 cents. 

15. Farmers' Bulletin No. 841, " Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the 

Home"; Farmers' Bulletin No. 847, "Potato Storage and Storage 
Houses "; Farmers' Bulletin No. 864, " Saving Vegetable Seed for the 
Home and Market Garden"; Farmers' Bulletin No. 879, "Home 
Storage of Vegetables"; Farmers' Bulletin No. 916, "A Success- 
ful Community Drying Plant," United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. 



cii.\i'Ti:i> .\\i 

PRESERVATION OF MEATS 

Since tlie earliest ages people have preserved meats hy vario\is 
means, and some of llie methods in use lo-day have eome down 
from a great ant i(|iiil \-. .Most of tlic modern methods of meat 
jireservation, wliit h have wide eonnuereial use, ean also be used 
in tlie home, witli the single exeeption of eanning meats, which 
it is not wise foi- the liome maker to attempt who is inexperienced 
ill eaiiiiiiig. Aiiioiig the principal means used are drying, smuk- 
iiig. and curing with salt. 

GENERAL METHODS 

Drying. — This is not only the oldest method of preserving 
foods, but it is the simplest. While drying is better adapted to 
the curing of fniits and vegetables than it is to meats, yet meats 
are often shredded and dried in many parts of the world. Drying 
meats should only be practiced where there is little moisture in 
the atmosphere, or the meat will sjioii before it becomes dry 
enough. It is never advi.sable to attempt to preserve meats by 
this method in cities where there is great danger of bacteria. 
Dried meat maintains all of its nutritive properties, but it is not 
easily digested on account of the toughened tissues. This jiroduct 
is not attractive in appearance, and this fact also works against its 
extensive use. 

Smoking. — The custom of smoking meats is said to have 
oi-iginated from the habit of suspending meat near the fireplace in 
the dwelling. The meat became saturated with the creosote from 
the smoke, which gave it an agreeable taste aiul aided in its keep- 
ing qualities. The creosote was formed by the burning of the wood, 
and the smoke closed the pores to some extent, excluding the 
air and proving objectionable to insects. Before meats are smoked 
they usually undergo a treatment of salt and sugar, with some- 
times a small amount of saltpetre added to modify the color, com- 
256 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 257 

position, and flavor, and to aid in the preservation of the meat. 
Saltpetre is considered injurious to health by some hygieiiists, 
and therefore many may object to its use. It is included in 
some of these recipes because its use had heretofore been cus- 
tomary. 

Because the old method of smoking meats is long and expen- 
sive, a cheaper and quicker way has come into practice rather re- 
cently. Directions for this tatter method state that brine is soaked 
into the meat, which is then treated with "smokine" or "liquid 
smoke." This solution may be purchased from a local druggist. 

Liquid Smoke Method. — 

200 pounds of meat 1 ounce of saltpetre 

4 quarts of coarse salt 1 quart of warm water 

1 pound of brown sugar 14 pound of ground pepper 

Dissolve the saltpetre in the water, add salt and sugar, and 
mix well. Kub this mixture into the meat, and lay on a bench 
in a cold place for fourteen days. Then apply the liquid smoke 
with a brush, dry well, and in a few days paint the meat again 
with the liquid. Hang up, and when thoroughly dry wrap the 
meat in heavy brown paper and then in a clean flour sack. 

Much time is saved by using the above recipe, but the meat 
which has been cured in the old-fashioned smoke-house is much 
finer in flavor and texture. Smoke-houses are still in use in many 
sections of the country. The meat should not be subjected to the 
smoke until it has been properly cured and drained. 

Curing in Brine and Dry Salting. — Curing should begin as 
soon as the meat is cold and while it is still fresh. Frozen meats 
should not be salted, as the action of tiie frost will prevent proper 
penetration of the salt and uneven curing will result. 

Pure water, salt, sugar, and saltpetre are all the ingredients 
needed for ordinary curing of meat. Meat may be packed in 
large earthen jars or in clean barrels, tight enough to prevent 
leakage. The barrel or jar may be used again and again unless 
meat has spoiled in it. These vessels sliould always be scalded 
thoroughly each time before packing fresh meat into them. 

Brine-cured meats are best for farm use, for the reason that a 
17 



v:,.s SI ccKssi ri, canmm; and ri:i;si;i;\ in(; 

MiilatiU' |tliirc I'or (ii-\ curiii;,'- is iiol usually ohtaiiialilf. It is also 
less ti(iiil)it' 111 pack llic iiirat in a liaiTii ami |n)iii- on a Id'iin' than 
to ;,^(t ovrr it tlirt'C or louf times t<» fill) in tlie sail. Tin- l»i-iniij;; 
mctliod also j^ivcs lit'ttcf protection IVom insects and vermin. 
Troiiliie is sometimes e.\|tci'iencc(i in kcepin;,'' hi-ine, jnit it' pure 
water is used and directions are followed in mai<in<,^ tlie lirini' 
there shoidd 1)0 no dil'liculty in kcepin^^ it i'or a reasoiial)le lcn;^rili 
of time. i)iirin^- wai'm weatiicr hrine should he closely watched. 
Jf it becomes "i-<)i)y"" it should he boiled or more brine made. A 
cool, moist cellar is the best place for brine-curing. Dry-curing 
may be done successfull\' in a cellar also, though even more 
moist ui"e is needed to efl'ect a thorough cure. The cellai' should 
lie dark and tight enough to prevent Hies and vermin from dam- 
aging the meat. When meats which have been cured in brine are 
boiled the shrinkage is greater than those which have been cured 
by dry-salting. 

PRESERVING BEEF ^ 

Corned Beef. — The pieces commoidy used for corning are 
the plate, rump, cross-ribs, and brisket, or, in other words, the 
cheaper cuts of meat. The loin, ribs, and other fancy cuts are 
more often used fresh, and, since there is more or less waste of 
nutrients in corning, this is well. The pieces for coming should 
be cut into convenient-sized joints, say five or six inches square. 
It should be the aim to cut them all about the same thickness so 
that they will make an even layer in the barrel. 

IMeat from fat animals makes choicer corned beef than that 
from poor animals. When the meat is thoroughly cooled it 
should be corned as soon as possible, as any decay in the meat is 
likely to spoil the brine during the corning process. T'nder no 
circumstances should the meat be brined while it is frozen. 
Weigh out the meat and allow eight pounds of salt to each 100 
pounds; sprinkle a layer of salt one-quarter of an inch in dei)th 
over the bottom of the barrel; pack in as closely as possible the 

' .XoTK. — This recipe and others which follow are (iiiotcd from Farmers' 
I'lilletin No. 183, "Meat on the Farm: Butcherinfr, Curiiij,', ami Keeping," 
l»y Aii(lr«'w Boss, U. S. Department of Atrriciilture, 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 259 

cuts of meat, makinor a layer five or six inches in thickness ; then 
put on a layer of salt, following with another layer of meat; 
repeat until the meat and salt have all been packed in the 
barrel, care being used to reserve salt enough for a good layer 
over the top. After the pack has stood over night add, for 
every 100 pounds of meat, four pounds of sugar, two ounces of 
baking soda, and four ounces of saltpetre dissolved in a gallon 
of tepid water. Three gallons more of water should be sufficient 
to cover this quantity. In ease more or less than 100 pounds of 
meat is to be corned, make the brine in the proportion given. A 
loose board cover weighted down with a heavy stone should be 
put on the meat to keep all of it under the brine. In ease any 
should project, the meat would spoil and cause the brine to 
deteriorate. 

It is not necessary to boil the brine except in warm weather. 
If the meat has been corned during the winter and must be kept 
into the summer season, it would be well to watch the brine 
closely during the spring, as it is more likely to spoil at that 
time than at any other season. If the brine appears to be 
ropy or does not drip freely from the finger when immersed 
and lifted, it should be drained off and new brine added, after 
carefvilly washing the meat. The sugar or molasses in the brine 
has a tendency to ferment, and, unless the brine is kept in a cool 
place, there is sometimes trouble from this source. The meat 
should be kept in the brine twenty-eight to forty days to secure 
thorough corning. 

Dried Beef. — The round is commonly used for dried beef, the 
inside of the thigh being considered the choicest piece, as it is 
slightly more tender than the outside of the round. The round 
should be cut lengthwise of the grain of meat in preparing for 
dried beef, so that the muscle-fibers may be cut crosswise when 
the dried beef is sliced for table use. A tight jar or cask is 
necessarj^ for curing. The process is as follows : To each 100 
pounds of meat weigh out five pounds of salt, three pounds of 
granulated sugar, and two ounces of saltpetre ; mix thoroughly 
together. Rub the meat on all surfaces with a third of the mix- 
ture and pack it in the jar as tightly as possible. Allow it to 



•jCO Src'CKSSFUI. CANNIN(; AM) I'lMiSKliN' I N{J 

rt'iiiain tliffc days, ulicii it should lir rciiinvcd and i-iiIiIkmI aj^ain 
willi aiiollin- tliii-<i of llic mixture. Iti icpafUiiivr I'Ut at tlu' 
l)ottom the j)it'c'ts that wert; on toj) the first time. Let stand i'or 
three days, when Ih^y should he removed and rubbed with the 
remaining; third of the mixture and allowed to stand for three 
days lucre. The litiuid foi-iinu;^ in the jars shoidd not be removed, 
but the meat sliould be repaeked in tlie liquid eaeh time. The meat 
is ready to be taken from the pickle, and should be smoked and 
hunt: in a dry attic or near the kitchen fire where the water will 
evaporate from it. Tt may l)e used at any time after smokinf.', 
althouLrli the lon,uriT it hangs in the dry atmosphere the drier it 
will get. The drier the climate, in general, the more easily meats 
can be dried. In arid regions good dried meat can be made by 
exposing it fresh to the air, with protection from flies. 

Pickling Meat. — Authorities differ in regard to the formula 
used in the pickling of meats. The following recipe is often used 
for tongue and small pieces of meat : 

Cured Tongue. — 

2 gallons of water 1 ounce of saltpetre 

3 pounds of salt % cupful of su<,'ar 

Rub part of the salt into the meat, dissolving the remainder 
of the salt, the sugar, and the saltpetre in the water. Boil, 
skim, and strain to remove all impurities. Cool thoroughly be- 
fore adding meat. Place a weight over the jar to keep the meat 
under the brine. Keep in a cold place and the tongue will be 
cured and ready to cook in four or five days. 

PRESERVING PORK ' 

Plain Salt Pork. — Rub each piece of meat with fine common 
salt and pack closely in a barrel. Let stand over night. The 
next day weigh out ten pounds of salt and two ounces of salt- 
petre to each 100 pounds of meat and dissolve in four gallons of 
boiling water. Pour this brine over the meat when cold, cover, 
and weigh down to keep it under the brine. 

'Note. — These direttions for handling pork were contributed hy Major 
Lawrence Foot, Special Agent ]\larketing, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Little Rock, Ark. 



PRESERVATTOX OF IMEATS 



261 



How to Cure, Smoke, and Keep Hams, Shoulders, and 
Bacon, — i\leat cannot be safely eiuvd it* it has any animal heat 
in it. 

Cutting a Pork (Fif?. 124). — "Remove the head one inch be- 
hind the ears, the feet one inch above the knee-and-hoek-joints. 
The shoulder cut is made between the fourth and fifth ribs. The 




liillllii.'i'ii 

Fig. 124. — Cutting a pork. 




Fig. 125. — Trimming hams. 



Fig. 126. — Picnic hams properly 
trimmed. 



ham is removed from the middle piece by cutting just back of the 
rise in the backbone. The hams should be trimmed neatly and 
round, making- long hams; cut six inches below the stitie-joint 
(Pig. 125). The shoulders can be cut into picnic hams if desired 
(Fig. 126). Notice carefully the illustrations of hams, picnic 
hams, and bacon properly trimmed (Figs. 127 and 128). Remove 

Note. — Drawing.s made from illustrations in Farmers' Bulletin Xo. 183. 



•>(;•> srcCKSSl 1 I. ( \\M\(; AM) I'KKSKltNl NC 

the Itackhoiic t'inm llir iiiiildic |iiiM-r liy siiuiiiLT n\'\' lln- riWs cldsc to 
it. K'('iii(>\(' the I'ilis, li'aN'iiiLT as liltlc iiii-at on tlu'in as pussihlt', as 
that meat will lie iircdid in tin- sides 1(» have liai-oii "with a st peak 
of h-aii." Trim thi- sidt's neatly and with strai'_dil ctlirt'S; h'al" Tat 
and the lat t i-inniiiniis j^o into hird. the h'an intu saiisa^s^e. 

Salting. — No suLiar and no saltpetre are nsed in this rccipo. 
A liani^ini^- pt'W, box, or cask nL,i\- he used i'ur i)ue"kiu^' salted 





^^ 





Fin. 127. — .\ wpll-trimmed ham. 



Fic. 128. — A well-trininicfl tironk- 
fasl Ijucon. 



[)oi'k. First, place a hiycr of salt and popper on the bottom of 
the ])e\v oi" bo.x, then the i)ieees of meat, skin (h>\\ii, salting the 
top heavily; tlien another layer, skin down, saitinii" it, and so on, 
eovering- vwvy |)artiele of the meat, sides, ends, and toj), with 
salt. When done the meat Avill look like a pile of salt. Hams, 
shoulders, and baeon are salted in tliis manner and allowed to 
stand three or four weeks, aecordin.ir to the weather. If it is 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 263 

very cold it takes a longer period. If the weather turns warm, 
shorten the period, but endeavor to cure the meat in a room that 
will average a temperature of 50", if possible. If during curing 
the salt becomes crusted, overhaul the meat, rub the salt in thor- 
oughly by hand, and pack it back in the same salt. When the 
meat has remained in the salt for the proper time, remove it, 
wash the meat thoroughly with tepid water, scrubbing it with a 
brush until all salt is removed from the outside, then hang "as 
the hog walks" — shanks down. The hams and shoulders should 
hang by wire from the thick ends. Drain the meat thoroughly 
for at least twenty-four hours, then put smoke to it. 

Smoking. — The meat should hang at least fifteen feet above 
the fire. Start a slow fire with green hickory^ chips and smother 
the flame, if any, with corn-cobs. The meat should be warmed 
up gradually with a cool, dry smoke and smoked from ten to 
fifteen days, or until the meat has the proper color, a light 
chestnut. The house should never get hot (see p. 268). 

Sugar-cured Breakfast Bacon. — For up-to-date "sugar- 
cured" breakfast bacon, take pieces one inch to one and one- 
half inches in thickness, six to eight inches wide, and fifteen to 
eighteen inches long, and treat with salt, sugar and saltpetre 
mixture for fifteen to twenty-two days, unless strips are heavier. 
To every 100 pounds of meat weigh out eight pounds of salt, 
two pounds of granulated white sugar, and two ounces of salt- 
petre, mix all thoroughly, dampen the top side (not skin side) 
lightly with water by using a whisk broom dipped in water, then 
rub the mixture into the top side, the edges, and the ends. 
Sprinkle bottom of box with the mixture, lay in the piece that is 
rubbed, skin down, and sprinkle with the salt mixture, giving a 
light coating on top, then another, and so on. Every seven days 
from the day packed, overhaul all, rub each piece again, and re- 
salt with the same mixture lightly. The bacon that is one inch 
thick should remain in mixture fifteen days. The bacon that is 
one and one-half inches thick should remain in mixture twenty- 
two days. Heavier bacon may require longer time. Then take 
out, wash thoroughly, hang in smoke-house twenty-four hours to 
drain, and smoke to a light-chestnut color. This recipe should 



'jci si'C'CKSSi ri. CA.NMNc AM) i'i;i;si;ii\ 1 NT; 

not Iti' used wliriT the meat must lie kept in a wai'iii and drv 
place, as the prcsci'vat ivcs will md pmctr-atc easily and uni- 
formly. 

Pickled Hams and Bacon in Brine. — 'llus ncipc dilVcis fi-om 
the our ^MVfii I p. L'i;-J I, in that itcalls for saltpetre and water. It 
has ^'iven satisfaction and is pnd'erred by some. When the meat 
is cold, rul) each piece with salt and allow it to drain over niirlit. 
Then pack it in a haiwi'l with the hams and shoulders in the 
bottom, usinf,' the strips of bacon to till in between or to i)Ut on 
top. Wei<i:li out for each 100 pounds of meat eit,'ht pounds of 
salt, two pounds of brown sugar, or syrup, and two ounces of salt- 
petre. Dissolve all in foui- yrallons of water, and cover the meat 
with the brine. I'or summer use it will be safest to boil the brine 
before usinir. In that ease it should be thoroughly cooled be- 
fore it is used. For winter curing it is not necessary to boil 
the brine. Bacon strips should remain in this brine four to six 
weeks ; hams, six to eight weeks. Hams and bacon cured in the 
spring will keep right through the summer after they are smoked. 
The meat will be sweet and palatable if it is properly smoked, 
and the flavor will be good. 

Head-cheese. — ^^Cut a hog's head into four pieces. Remove 
the brain, cars, skin, snout, and eyes. Cut off the fattest parts 
for lard. Put the lean and bony parts to soak over night in 
cold water in order to extract the blood and dirt. When the 
meat is cleaned, put it over the fire to boil, using water enough 
to cover it. Boil until the meat .separates readily from the bone. 
Then remove it from the fire and pick out all of the bones. Drain 
ofi' the liquor, saving a part of it for future use. Chop the meat 
up finely with a chopping knife. Keturn it to the kettle and 
pour on enough of the liquor to cover the meat. Let it boil 
slowly for fifteen minutes to half hour. Season to taste with salt 
and pepper just before removing it from the fire. Turn into 
a shallow pan or dish. Cover with a piece of cheesecloth and put 
on a board with a weight to make it solid. When cold it should 
be .sliced thinly and served without further cooking. 

Scrapple. — The process for making this article of food is like 
that for head-cheese until the bones i\rc removed and the meat 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 265 

chopped. When the liquor is added, return the. pan to the stove 
to boil. Cornmeal is then stirred in until the contents are as thick 
as cornmeal mush. Stir it constantly for the first fifteen minutes. 
Then set it back on the stove to boil slowly for an hour. When 
it is done, pour it into a shallow dish to mould. Hot grease 
poured over the top after scrapple is put into moulds will help 
in keeping it. When cold it is sliced in thin pieces and fried. 

Pickled Pigs' Feet." — Pigs ' feet should be thoroughly scalded, 
cleaned, washed and chilled, and cured in a clean, sterilized 
wooden vessel. Strength of pickle depends upon length of time 
it is to be carried, say an 80° pickle with five ounces of saltpetre 
per 100 pounds of meat for shipment in ten days; a 100^ pickle 
for five days. Some curers use in addition one and one-half 
pounds of sugar per 100 pounds of feet. Pigs' feet cured by 
this method will be white and more attractive than when pickled 
with spices. 

If spices are used it must be remembered that cloves tend to 
darken the feet. Curing should be effected in a clean wooden 
receptacle, using clean water for each batch. 

Trying Out Lard. — Only the best of fat should be used for 
choice lard. Leaf fat is the best. Leaf lard is that which is 
made from the leaf fat which lies around the kidneys. The 
next best in quality is that from the back, and the poorest 
quality is that from around the intestines. The greater part of 
the lard marketed is obtained by melting together the whole fat 
except the leaf fat. The back strip of the side also makes nice 
lard, as do the ham, shoulder, and neck trimmings. Fat from 
around the intestines should never be mixed with the leaf and 
back fat. It makes a strong-smelling lard and should be kept 
separate. All scraps of lean meat should be cut out of the fat 
before trying out, as they are very likely to stick to the kettle and 
get scorched, giving an unpleasant flavor to the lard. W^hen 
preparing the fat for trying, cut it into pieces from one to one 
and one-half inches square. The pieces should be nearly equal 
in size, so that they will try out in about the same time. Fill a 
clean kettle about three-fourths full, and put in a quart of water 

' Quoted from " The National Provisioner." 



■>i\i\ SI (■( Kssi'i I. ( WMNC AM) I'll I is I ;i;\ I \( ; 

CI-, if coiivi-niciil, a (piaiM ol' hot l;ii-(l. ( )iir or llic otlici- is necessary 
to jireM'iii the lat I'riiiii hii riiiiiir lielori' the heat is sunicieiit to 
ItriiiLTout tlu' j,'i't'asc;. Keep tlu- kettle over a iiiodcratc fin-. When 
stai'tiiit: the temperature slioiihl hi' ahoiit 1*10 V., and shoiihl 
irradiially rise to ll'.") I'\ ( 'ook until the erai-kliiij/s are l)rowii and 
liirht enouL:h to tloat. Fre(jnent stin-inj; will he necessary to j)n;- 
vent hnrninir. When done, remove i"i-om the stove and alh»\v to 
eool sliirhtly, ami then strain thniuLih a muslin eloth into a laru'c 
jar. Stir it oeeasionally until it is eool enouirh to heirin to solidify. 
If |)ails or smaller jars are to he filled, the lai'd should he dipped 
out while ju.st wai-m enoutrh to he li(|uid. Stirriiifj while the lard 
is eooliufr tends to whiten it and makes it smoother. I^ard should 
he stored in a di-y, eool, dark iilaee. Liirht, moisture, and hiiudi 
temperatures aft'ect its quality unfavorably. 

SAUSAGE 

Sausage. — Pork saiisafre should he made only from clean, 
fresh pork. The shoulders, neck, and lean trimming's are usu- 
ally used for sausage. Unless part of the fat is removed and 
used for lard the sausage is likely to be too fat. To each 
eighteen pounds of lean meat allow six pounds of fat. ]\Iix the 
fat and lean meat together in chopping. Where a rotary cutter 
is used it is best to cut the meat twice (Fig. 129). After it is 
cut the first time, spread it out thinly and season. Eight ounces 
of pure, fine salt, four ounces of ground black pepper, four 
ounces of pure leaf sage, rubbed fine, and one teaspoonful of red 
pepper to each twenty-four pounds of meat will suit tlie taste of 
most persons. The seasoning should be sprinkled thinly over the 
cut meat and the meat again run through the cutter to mix 
the seasoning thoroughly. This method will give a more even 
mixing of the spices than can he obtained by working it with the 
hands. For immediate use the sausai.:'e may ])e packed awa,v in 
stone jars or crocks, to be sliced for frying. ^Many people stulT 
it into casings made from the small intestines of the hog. AVhen 
this is done the intestines nnist l)e turned inside out and care- 
fully cleaned. 

A good sul)stitute for casings may be had in narrow muslin 
bags. These, when filled, should be two and one-half or three 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 



267 



inches in diameter and eighteen to twenty-four inches long. 
Stuff the sausage in tightly by hand and hang in a cool place. 
If the sausage is to be kept for some time, melted lard should be 
rubbed over the outside of the bag. This excludes the air. 
Sausage may be kept for some time in a large jar if a thin 
coat of hot lard is poured over the top. 

Mixed Sausage. — This may be made from a mixture of pork 
and beef in almost any proportion. It is the custom of many 




Fig. 129. — Grinding sausage meat llie second time after seasoning is added. 

farms to kill three or four hogs and a beef during the winter for 
the year's supply of meat. When this plan is followed a nice 
supply of sausage can be made from the trimmings. Sausage 
should not contain too much fat. A good proportion is two 
pounds of lean pork, one pound of fat pork, and one pound of 
lean beef. Chop together fine and season the same as for pork 
sausage. Pack in jars, muslin bags, or casings. Many people 
prefer this to clear pork sausage, as it is not so fat. 

Bologna Sausage. — To each ten pounds of lean beef use one 
pound of fat pork, or bacon if preferred. Chop finely and 
season with one ounce of salt to each four pounds of meat, one 
ounce of the best black pepper (ground, pure) to each six 



.)(^S SLtfKSSFl L ( ANNINC AND I'llKSKKNINC 

|i(Miii»ls of meat, and a littlf lm-ouikI citi-iaiitli-i-. StiilT into cas- 
iiiLTs called licet" "middles'" or heel" "i-oiiiids." 11" stiilVt-d into 
niiddlcs. iiiakf tlif saii.sa>_n's ten or twclvfinclics loii^'. and allow 
tlitiii to lianu" stfaiLrlit. It' stuH'cd into ronnds, make tlit-m twdvc 
to liftcen inches lonir, and tie liie ends to^:etlier so as to form 
finjiN. SiiKtke i'oi- ten or twelve hours. ( 'ook in hoiliii^' water 
until the sausa^'es tloat. Dry on elean hay or straw in the sun, 
and haiiLT away in a eool ])laee until wanted. 

Casings. — Sausage casings ai-e the intestines of lioirs. e.ittle, 
oi' sheej) wliieh have heen emjitied and eleaned. They are tuj'iied 
inside out and soaked in a solution of lye or lime water, thor- 
oultIiIn' waslied, and then salted down. When eleanecl and j)ut 
up hy a reputable })aeker they are as ^''ood as when eleaned at 
home, and when they can be bou,<,dit at a I'easonahle pi'iee (three 
cents a pound. j)erhaps) it hardly ])ays to clean them foi- home 
use. Tile casings fi'om ditTerent animals are used for the vari- 
ous kinds of sausages. Beef casing's are of three kinds — ''rounds," 
made from the small intestines; "hunus." made from the large 
intestines, and "middles," made from that ])art of the entrails 
leading from the hung to the rectum. The "rounds'" are used 
for bologna, the "bunu:s" for bologna, ham, and blood sausage, 
and the "middles" for bologna and summei- sausage. Hog cas- 
ings are made from the small intestines of the hog, and are used 
mainly for pork liidv sausage. Sheep casings are from the small 
intestines of sheep, and are commonly used for wieiierwurst and 
other small sausages. 

THE SMOKK-IIOUSE 

The smoke-house should be eight or ten feet higli to give 
the best results, and of a size suited to the amount of meat 
likely to be smoked. One six by eight feet will be large enough 
for ordinaiy farm use. Ample ventilation should be provided 
to carry oiY the warm air in order to prevent overheating 
the meat. Small oj)enings under the eaves or a chimney in the 
roof Avill be sufficient if arranged so as to be easily controlled. 
A fire-pot outside of the house proper, with a Hue through which 
the smoke may be conducted to the meat ehambei', gives the best 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 269 

conditions for smoking. When this cannot well be arranged, a 
fire may be built on the floor of the house and the meat shielded 
by a sheet of metal. Where the meat can be hung six or seven 
feet above the fire this precaution need not be taken. The con- 
struction should be such as to allow the smoke to pass up freely 
over the meat and out of the house, though rapid circulation is 
at the expense of fuel. 

Brick or stone houses are best, though the first cost is greater 
than if they are built of lumber. Large dry-goods boxes and 
even barrels may be made to serve as smoke-houses where only 
small amounts of meat are to be smoked. The care of meat in 
such substitutes is so much more difficult and the results so much 
less satisfactory that a permanent place should be provided if 
possible. 

The following specifications were furnished by Major Law- 
rence Foot, of Little Kock, Ark. From these figures one can get 
an idea of the approximate cost of a small smoke-house. In dif- 
ferent localities the price of material and labor will vary some- 
what. This bill of lumber and specifications are for a smoke- 
house ten feet by sixteen feet, roof one-third pitch, with dirt 
floor and brick foundation : 

G75 brick, $8 per 1000 $.5.40 

Three squares of composition roofing 6.00 

Sills, 2 pieces, 4x6 inches, 16 feet long 64 feet 

Sills, 2 pieces, 4 X ^ inches, 10 feet long 40 feet 

Siding, 62 pieces, 1X1- inches, 12 feet long 620 feet 

Battens, 52 pieces, 14 X 3 inches, 10 feet long 154 feet 

Rafters, 11 pieces, 2X4 inches, 16 feet long 117 feet 

Joists, 7 pieces, 2X6 inches, 10 feet long 70 feet 

Plates, 2 pieces, 2X4 inches, 10 feet long 13 feet 

Plates, 2 pieces, 2x4 inclies, 16 feet long 21 feet 

Sheeting 300 feet 

On sides of door, 2 pieces, 2X4 inclies, 10 feet long 13 feet 

Door battens, 1 piece, 1 X 4 inclies, 12 feet long 4 feet 

Total feft ($14 per 1000) 1416 feet 19.82 

Total cost of above $31.22 



'r,o 



.SLC CKSSIL L CANMNii AM) J'KKSKUS INC 



The al)ov(' luiiihcr will ixTiiiit the roof to cxtcinl one foot over 
thr ^m1)1(>s and oiif fool over the sides. The sheet iiij; is not worth 
as iiiiich as the other Imnbei'; $<S.78 additional will make the 
house cost ahoiit $40. This $S.78 shonid pay foi- the carpenter s 
woi-U (two days should do it), bi-iekla\ « r. mortar, hin^'es, i)ad- 
lock, and nails. 

On the i-id«j:e of your roof you should have two ventilators, 
divided as follows: Jf house is sixteen t'ctt lonjr, one five feet 
IVom (iiir t'hil ami llir iiexl live i'crl tVdiii the othi-i- vrntilator; 
make same of ^ahani/ed sheet ii'oii omc tnot lomr, in the sliajx- 
of a ])ipe four inehes in diameter: let six inches he ahove the 
lidiic and six inehes helow, and so built mi the I'iilj^e i the tinner 
ean do that) as not to let the rain leak into your house. I'se a 
loo.se wooden eover of sufficient weitrlit to keep them (the covers) 
in place so as to fully open or j>artly close, hut always keep them 
a little open in order to make a .sliirht drauudit to let the smoke 
out slowly and jiive a eool smoke. A ventilator at the bottom of 
youi" door will help this sliizht di'auelit. imt the inside of same 
should be covered with clost' wire nettinu' in oi'der to keep out 
flies, and the same kind of nettinfj tied tightly with wire should 
also be ])laced over and arouiiil youi' roof ventilators foi- the 
same pnrpose. The house should be absolutely dark, "li<rht- 
j)roof. '' This will keep out flies, which breed skii)pers. I'ut 
youi" foundation in the g^ronnd below frost line. 

Fuel. — The best fuel for smokiny- meats is srreen hickory or 
niai)le wood smolhei-ed with sawdust of the same material. Hard 
wood of any kind is preferable to soft wood. Resinous woods 
should never be used, as they are likely to impart bad tlavors to 
the product. Corn-cobs are the best substitute for hard wood, 
and ma\' be used if desired. Soft wood and eorn-eobs irive otf 
lar^e amounts of cai'bon in burnin^^ and that is de])osited on the 
meat, makinrr it dark in color and rank flavored. Juniper berries, 
fracrrant woods, and apple parinu's are sometimes added to the 
fire to flavor the meat. 

Filling the House. — Meat that is to be smoked should ho re- 
moved from the brine two or three days before beiuLT l)ut in the 
smoke-house. If it has been eui-ed in a stroii'r brine, it will be 



PRESERV'ATION OF MEATS 271 

best to soak the pieces in cold water over night to prevent a 
cinist of salt from forming on the outside when drained. Wash- 
ing the meat in tepid water and scrubbing clean with a brush is 
a good practice. The pieces should then be hung up to drain 
for a day or two. When drained, they may be hung in the house. 
All should be suspended from the joists and rafters below the 
ventilators, and should hang so that no two pieces come in con- 
tact, as this would prevent uniform smoking. 

Keeping up the Fire. — A slow fire may then be started, warm- 
ing up the meat gradually. During the winter months in cold 
climates it is best to keep the fire going continually until the 
smoking is complete, holding the temperature at about the same 
point. If the fire is allowed to die down, the meat becomes cold 
and the smoke does not penetrate readily. This results in heavy 
smoke on the outside and very little on the inner portions of the 
meat. During the spring months and in the summer a light fire 
may be started every second or third day for two weeks, the 
meat being allowed to hang in the smoke-house until sufficiently 
colored. When the fire is kept going steadily and an even tem- 
perature is maintained, twenty-four to thirty-six hours will be 
required to finish one lot of meat. Smoke will not penetrate 
frozen meat, and it will be necessary to extract all frost from it 
before filling the house. The house should be kept dark at all 
times to prevent flies entering. As soon as smoked sufficiently, 
the meat should be cooled by opening the ventilators or doors. 

KEEPING SMOKED MEATS 

When hard and firm the meat may be canvased or packed 
away for summer use. Smoked meat may also be laft in the 
smoke-house for some time during moderate weather. The house 
should be kept perfectly dark and well enough ventilated to 
prevent dampness. A dry, cool cellar or an attic with free cir- 
culation will be a satisfactory place for smoked meats at all 
seasons if it is kept dark and flies are excluded. A fine way to 
keep the smoked meat is to place the meat, when smoking is 
finished, skin down, in a single layer on a hanging table in the 
smoke-house. The table should be hung *v'ith wires so the mice 



o»o srcci:ssii 1. CANMNC AM) i'i:i.M.ii\iNf; . 

camiol rciicli tlic tmal. Tiny cjiii easily do this wlit-n tlic taltlcs 
afc Imiij; willi cdids. Sil'i wcxkI aslics omm- tlit's<' liaiiiriiitr tables, 
|ilai-c (III tliriii (tiily (iiir layci" <»t' meat; skin duw ii, and euver 
ends, sides, and toji cniiiidetely with sifted ashes at least two 
inches thick. Make ashes i'roiii siieli wnnds as puplar, a.sh, eot- 
tnnwood, or such hard woods as hickory, maple, walnut, etc. 
The aslii's should he sifted until as (ine as lloiir. and the meat 
can remain mitouelied and only reiii(i\'ed as needed for the 
talile. Hams so treated will keeji remarkahly well foi- several 
years. It is '_;vii('rall\' eoiicediMl that a ham attains its full excel- 
lence w hen it is a \'ea!' old. 

'^riiis method seems to follow out the method used l)y th(> 
Westphalians in smokinn" their hams, except that they allow them 
to hani:' until wanted for use, and once in a while, especially in 
damp weather, <,nve them a little smoke. 

If to be kept only a short time, hams and bacon will need 
only to be huufi: out separately without eoverine-. For lontrer 
keepinfj it will be necessary to wrap them fiist in heavy brown 
paper and then in burlap, canvas, oi" muslin and bury tliem in a 
grain bin or other suitable place, the object beizifr to gain a u in- 
form temperature and to keep away insects. A coat of irroiind 
pepper rubbed into the meat before wrapping will be distasteful 
to them. For al)solute safe-keeping for an indefinite period of 
time it is essential that the meat be thoroughly cured. After 
it is smoked and has become dry on the surface it should be 
wrapped in parchment paper; or clean wrapping paper will do 
where parchment paper cannot be had. Then inclose in heavy 
muslin or canvas, and cover with yellow wash or oi-dinary lime 
whitewash, glue being added. TTang each piece out so that it 
does not come in contact with other })ieces. Do not stack in 
piles. 

Recipe for Yellow Wash for Meat Canvas. — For 100 pounds 

hams ()!• bacon take : 

3 pouiuls of liiirytcs (tiariiiiii 1 eiiiicc of <xhio 

sulfate) •' oiiiu'os of Hour 

1 ouuco of cliroiiic yellow 
(lead clirouiate) 



rilESERVATlON OF MEATS 273 

Half fill a pail with water and mix in the flour, dissolving 
all lumps thoroughly. Dissolve the chrome in a quart of water 
in a separate vessel and add the solution and the glue to the Hour ; 
bring the whole to a boil and add the barytes slowly, stirring 
constantly. j\lake the wash the daj' before it is required. Stir 
it frequently when using, and apply with a brush. 

Cooking Ham. — Hams cured without sugar in the salt to 
sweeten them will perliaps be better if boiled by the follow- 
ing recipe. The sugar placed in the kettle will in a great 
measui'e add to the sweetness of the ham, and if the ham has 
taken too much salt the sugar will help that fault also to some 
extent. 

A Comhination Virginia and Louisiana Frcipe. — Immerse and 
soak the ham or shoulder in water the night before cooking (if 
one year old or over, soak twenty-four hours), then wash thor- 
oughly in tepid water. The ham is then placed, skin down, in 
a boiler full of boiling water. After putting in the water, add 
a teacupful each of sugar and vinegar. The temperature should 
then be allowed to lower slightly and the w^ater .just kept gently 
simmering several hours, with the top on the kettle. As the 
water boils out, add fresh boiling water, and always keep the 
boiler full. By putting it in boiling water the albumin is co- 
agulated at once on the surface of the ham and much of the 
juices and flavors kept in until cooked. When the ham is done 
the meat will leave the bone in the leg for about an inch. After 
the ham is cooked, take kettle and all off the stove, skim off the 
impurities, and let it cool off in the water in which it has cooked, 
as it will reabsorb part of the nutriment and .juices which have 
been drawn out during cooking, and the shrinkage is much less 
than if taken out immediately. 

Baling Ham. — The following day remove outside skin, stick 
with cloves one-half inch apart, and cover the ham well with 
brown sugar and bake, basting it frequently with cider. "When 
it is well baked, take it out of the oven and baste another ten to 
twenty minutes in the pan on top of the stove. The sugar crust 
should be quite brown and crisp when done, 
18 



;^'M SUCCICSSII I, ( ANMNC AM) 1'I:1;s|;K\ 1 .\(j 

yUKSTIONS 

1. What inrlliods liavc hccii used for cciitiirH's in tlit> pri'HtTvutinn of incut? 

2. \\ liy should dumI In- curcil as soon aH possihlc after tin- aiiiiiiul li<*ut 

lias hetii lost' 

3. W liy can you not dijicMid upon tlif nsiilt if fio/.i-n nuat L»: cured or 

hint>kcdV 
•1. W'liy is hrino-curod moat iiinrc practical tliaii dry cured wlicn tlic meat ia 

cured at home? 
.">. I'or what must the hrine be watched closely, especially during warm 

weather'.' \\ iiat are tlic causes of tlie lirine spoiling? What care must 

!)(' gi\(M i( and the meat in it if a lirine is found to l)e spoiled? 
(i. W liy must tlie meat he weighted so that every porti«jn is kept under the 

liiiiic? 
7. What cut of heef is usually selected as the nicer jiortiun to dry? How 

should it be cut? 
S. Describe the process of curing and the time taken to accomplish it. 

When is the beef ready for use? 
;>. Wiiat is meant by sugar-cured hams and liainnV 

BlliL10(;RArilV 

1. Anthony, G. A., and Asiibrook, F. G., 1!)17, '• Killing Hogs and Curing 

Pork,"' Farmers' Bulletin No. 01;^, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, 
\Yashington, 1). C. 

2. Hitting, A. W. and K. G., " Canning and How to I'se Canned Foods," 

10 IG. Published by Natl. Canners' Assoc, Washington, D. C. 'M cents. 
.3. Boss, Andkkw, " Moat on the Farm: Butchering, Curing, and Keejiing," 
1900, Farmers' Bulletin 183, United States Department of Agricul- 
ture. Can be i)urchased from the Superintendent of DocunuMits. 
(iovernment Printing Oflice, Wasliington, D. C. 5 cents. 

4. Cato ANDi Vauuo, " Roman Farm Management," done into English, with 

notes of modern instances, by a Virginia Farmer, 10l;i. Pul)lislied 
by the Macmillan Company, New York City, N. Y. $2. 

5. Foot, IjAWRENCe, " How to ^lake as Good Hams in Any State as arc 

Made in Virginia"; "How to Cure, Smoke, and Keep Hams, 
Shoulders, and Bacon," 1915. IMiblished by the Extension Division 
of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. 

n. Fox, :\IiNXiE C, "l?lue Grass Cook Book," 1904. Publish.-.I l.y Fox. 
Dullield & Co., New York City, N. Y. $1.50. 

7. II.XMEL, G. T., "Modern Practice of Canning Meats." I'Ml. I'lililishcd 
by the Brecht Company, St. Louis, Mo. $5. 

S. Hai'SNEK, a., " The Manufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats," 
1912. Published by Scott, Greenwood & Son, London. .$.3. 

9. LiND, F. P., "Moat Canning." Circular No. 92. States Kelations Ser- 
vice, Oflice of l-^xtension Work South, United States Department of 
Agriculture, ^\'ashington, D. C. 



CHAPTER XVII 

USE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE DIET 

Fruits and vegetables would be welcome on our tables if it 
were only for their beauty of form and color, and for the pleas- 
ing variety of flavors which they give to our meals. Consider- 
ing, however, that besides being attractive to the eye and the 
taste they are absolutely necessary for health and for physical 
well-being, it seems worth while to make every effort to use them 
as freely as we can afford to. It is the part of wisdom, also, to 
preserve them in times of plenty for use in times of scarcity and 
high prices. 

These foods should not be undervalued because they cannot 
supply all that is needed in the diet. They cannot take the 
place of meat or milk, to be sure, or of bread or butter, but they 
are as important in their places as these other more substantial 
foods are in theirs. 

The healthful diet, as a whole, should supply a large number 
of substances, which, for convenience, may be here grouped 
under four heads : 

First, fuel. This is needed by the body much as the locomo- 
tive needs coal as a source of energy or of power to do work. The 
greater part of the fuel of the body is provided by fats, sugar, 
and starch. 

Second, protein. This, like fat, sugar, and starch, is a fuel, 
but, unlike them, it supplies many of the materials needed by 
the body of the child for making new tissues, and by the bodies 
of the grown persons for making good the losses in the bodily 
machinery that are constantly taking place as the result of the 
wear and tear of work. 

Third, non-burnable or mineral-building materials. These 
substances, like protein, are needed by the young for growth 
and by all as a means of keeping the body in good repair. 

275 



276 SUCCESS I' LL CANMNc AND ri:i.si;i;\ I NC 

Fourth, certain newly discovered sul»staiiees wliieli ;ir.' be- 
lieved to 1)0 <,'ro\vtli-f)i-(»iriotiii','' an<l liody-rc^'idatinir. .uid llit-re- 
forc needed to kccj) tlic liiiinaii iii;ii-liiiir in ^'(ind i-unniiif^ order. 
These sid)stanees cori't'spond with the clcjiiiiii'^'' niati-rials and the 
luhrieatinp: oils used on the hicoiiiotive. Tliry nt'itlier serve as 
fnel nor enter intct the structure of the lioijy. hut have an ini- 
portant part to j)hiy in its opi-ration. 

In considering' tlie neeessai'v nutrieuts of the Ijody in tlie 
ordei" ill whiili iliey are listeij ahove, we come first to those which 
cannot he supi)lied in any wiy lar<re measure by fresh fruits and 
vegretables. Ajjples, orantres, turni])s, asj)ara<.fus, and, in fact, 
all tlie fruits and vegretables contain larire amounts of water, 
usually ei^ht parts out of ten by weij^ht. In some cases, par- 
ticularly those of the succulent vcj^'etables like lettuce, cucum- 
bers, and tomatoes, water constitutes over 90 per cent of the 
weight. They have the same relation to butter, oil, and other 
fats as fuels for the body as soft wood or paper has to coal 
when eonsi(]ere<I as fuels for a locomotive. Even those who eat 
fruits and vevretahles very fi'eely seldom .tret from them, in the 
course of a tlay, more than a tenth of the eneriry they need for 
llieii' woi'k. 

Nor can fruits and vetretables be used as the chief sf)uree of 
protein. This is best supplied by milk in the case of the child, 
and by milk, meat, eiriJ^s. and cheese in the case of grown per- 
sons. Among the foods usually classed as vegetaliles, only the 
dried legumes — navy beans, peanuts, soy beans, and others — pro- 
vide nuieh protein. Taken as a whole, the vegetal)les seldom 
provide more than five per cent of all the jii'otein needed in the 
course of a day (Plate III). 

The statement of the Uses to which fruits and vegetables 
cannot be put clears the ground for an understanding of their 
very great usefidness in other particulars. As sources of min- 
eral-building substances, i)artieularly iron, they are invaluable. 
This should not he taken to mean that without fruits and vege- 
tables the diet would be entirely lacking in iron, for it is pres- 
ent in large amounts in lean meats, egtr yolks, cereals, and other 
common foods. In these last-mentioned substances, however, iron 



PLATE III 



U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A C.True: Director 



R-epared by 

C.F:LANGWOR"mY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 



e@[Ml?@SDTD©KI ©IF IF@@1 Rffl/^TIEI^^IL^ 



Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash 

.Water: 58.9 
Carboh^rates: 29 .1 



Water 



Fuel Value 
1. Sq In. Equals 
1000 Calories 




/ater:l2.6 



Prote, 



FVotein.-Q; 



Ash: 2.0 



Carbohyarates 




Carbohydrates: 7. 4 



740 CALORIES PLR PQUPOD 1600 CALORIES PER PDUIMD 

STlKinK!© IiII/^!KI,(iI^IlIJac 

,Ash:0.8 

-Fat: 0.3 

rotein: 2.3 

Fuel value^ 

c 

185 CALORIES PER PDUNB 
EDIBLE PORTION 



Water: 89.2- 




Water:75.4 



Protein: 3.K Carbohydrates:19.7 

-Ash: 0.7 




Fat: 11 



PER PDUIMD 



(Courtesy, OflBce of Home Economics, U.S. Department of Agriculture.) 

Food Chart 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE DIET 277 

is combined with a large amount of fuel in the form, sometimes 
of protein, sometimes of starch, sugar, or fat. If, therefore, 
meats, eggs, cereals, etc., are eaten in large enough amounts to 
supi)ly iron, they provide too much fuel for the body, and this, 
if not burned out to supply energy, is likely to be deposited in 
the form of fat. Unless fruits and vegetables are freely eaten, 
therefore, one of two unfortunate conditions is likely to exist: 
Either the diet will be deficient in iron, or it will be too "hearty. " 
It is because of their very wateriness that fruits and vegetables 
can be freely used as a source of iron and other mineral sujd- 
plies without overloading the body with other substances. 

In the diet of children fruits and vegetables are particularly 
useful. Milk, which is an indispensable part of their food, con- 
tains plenty of lime and some iron. The iron, however, is in- 
sufficient for health. Soups and other dishes made out of milk 
and spinach or other vegetables are therefore important items 
in the diet of children. 

Of the many other ways in which fruits and vegetables help 
to keep the body in order it will be sufficient to speak here only 
of two or three. First, they give bulk to the diet, and for this 
reason are believed to have an important part to play in the 
digestion of other foods. Their delicate, fibrous framework con- 
sists of a substance called cellulose, which is not digested. The 
cellulose, therefore, remains unchanged as it passes through the 
digestive organs and serves to prevent other foods from settling 
down into compact masses. Whether this is the whole explana- 
tion of the laxative effect of these foods or not is still uncertain. 
It is probable that the mild acids, and mineral substances which 
all of them contain contribute toward the same end. However 
that may be, they serve in some way to keep the food from 
accumulating in the intestines until it undergoes undesirable 
decomposition. 

There is also a theory that fruits and vegetables have an im- 
portant part to pla3' in offsetting certain substances that are 
produced in the digestion of meat, poultry, fish, eggs, etc. A cer- 
tain amount of these last-mentioned foods is needed for body- 
building purposes. "Without fruits and vegetables, however, they 



278 



SUCCKSSKiL CANMNC AM) i'i;i:si;i;\ I N<; 



Wullltl. ni-i-ordiiiLr t(t tile lllrni-y. lie left ill tlir lllir<)lM llliMlc pdsi- 
tidii ul' li;i\iiiLr prft'tiniicd a ^n-fat service t<i llie hoily ami then nl' 
hciiii,' ohlit^etl t<» injure it. Aecoiniiaiiied hy t'niits and vejre- 
talilcs. tlicy do llieii- heiieliceiit wuik and llicii arc transroriiicd 
into lianiiless siilistanci's in pieparat ion for lieiiiLr eliininateil from 
tile l)()dy. 

It is now ^"■eiici'ally heliexcd that tlie more meat an<l cj-^/s a jtej*- 
son cats the more tVnits and NCLi'i'tahh-s lie needs. To think, therc- 
foiv, that liccausc one has catcii a lai'^'c amount of meat lie needs 
no ve^'ctahk'S or fruit is a mistake, for under lliese cireumstanccs 
he needs ve^etal)les and fruits more than if a small amount (tf 




Fig. 130. — Hoasi uiih m %■! lai.i.- inan uoinr i.'ariu.sh. 

meat only had been eaten (Fig. I'.U)). In a heavy meal of meat, 
therefore, allowance should be made for fruits and vegetables. 
If necessary, tliis should be done by the cutting down of fats and 
sweets. A vegetable salad or fruit for dessert follows more 
logically after a heavy meat course than sueli desserts as suet 
puddings or pie (Pig. 131). 

It should be remembered, also, that while such foods as 
boiled rice, macaroni, and hominy are often eaten with meat or 
combined with it in the making of extremely attractive dishes, 
they are not substitutes for potatoes in the diet. "When one of 
them is served with meat (]h> housekeeper should think of it 
not as a substitute for vegetables, but rather ns taking Wxo place 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE DIET 279 

of part of tlie bread usually oaten at the meal, for rice, niacarcnii, 
or hominy has exactly the same uses in the diet that bread has. 
She should, therefore, take particular pains to supply some other 
vegetable in the form of a salad or of fruit for dessert in meals 
which contain meat but no potatoes. 

Finally, fruits and vegetables are an important source of 
certain recently discovered substances, sometimes called vita- 
mines, which are thought to promote growth in children and 
to have an important part to play in keeping all people, old as 
well as young, in good physical condition. 

Fig. 131. Fia 132. 





Fig. 131. — Fruit macedoine. 
Fig. 132. — A glass of currant jelly. 

What has been said so far about the nutritive value of 
fruits and vegetables applies to them when they are fresh and 
undried. After they have been dried they are no longer watery 
foods, but contain a very large percentage of nourishing ma- 
terial. Beans and peas, when dried, contain more protein than 
meat does, and even after they have been soaked in water and 
cooked they are considered good substitutes for meat and eggs. 
It is well, therefore, for the housekeeper, when she plans meals, 
to class the dried legumes with the meats. 

The well-ordered meal contains good bread, or a cereal food 



?H0 



SUCCKSSFI L (ANN INC AM) l'i:i;si:i;\ I N( ! 



scrxed ill suiiic <itliri- iittra<-l i\c way: a litlli- t'oixl rroiii the meat 
or meal siil>stif lit cs, ciMHiLrli Id insure siiriicioiit pi-oleiii ; a little 
hutlcr (H- other fat to •/wr rieliiiess; a little su^'^ar or other 
sweet to iui-iiish llavor. and, last hut not least, a voiretahle oi- a 
I'niit (Fiir. l-'H). These live kinds of IimkI should all be repre- 
sented in the diet at all times. The varied diet wliieli contains all 
oi" these five kinds of food is needed to make a perfeet ration. If 
one is laekini;, the diet will he delieient in some tliinir needed foi* 
health or i)alatability. 'Jlie time w.is when iIh' winter di^'t w.i- 




Fia. 133A. — Canned a-sparagus and pepper 
salad. 



Fi<:. l.S.-in.— T.or- 

calili 



:il iti f-il.ul made from 
.1 l.r:in.>. 



always one-sided because of the absence of fruit and veoretables. 
That time is now passed, or should be, for with onr present knowl- 
edge and skill in canning and preserving fruits and vegetables 
we may easily have a complete ration all the year round 
(Figs. 133 A and B). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Xitinc till" substances that should he iiU'hi(h'd in a lu-althfnl ilioi — .'^tatinp 

tile uso of oaeh in tho Vwxly. 

2. Wliy arc fruils an<l vcfrctalilcs ah.-^olutcly lu-ccs.-iarv for iicalth aiui 

jiliysic-al ^\■cll-l)cinp;? 

."{. W'liat constitutes a l)alancc(l meal when a lar;;c jiortidii nf meat is served? 

4. Xanie .some sul)stitutes for bread and outline two coiiiliinations for a 
meal Avhieh contains these svibstitutes. 

'). ^^'hat newly discovered substance lias Ixcii found in fruits and vege- 
tables? What is the function of these substances? 

(i. \\ hat dried vegetables can be substituted for meat? 

7. W'iuit is contaiTicd in a well-ordered meal? 

8. How can you iihiii to have this complete ration all the year? 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE 1)1 liT 281 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Barrows, Anna, and Lincoln, M. J., " Home Science Cook Book," 

11)04. Published by Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, Mass. $1. 

2. Bitting, A. W. and K. G., *' Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," 

191G. Published by the National Canners' Association, Washington, 
D. C. 30 cents. 

3. "Creole Cook Book," 1914. The Picayune, New Orleans, La. $1.25. 

4. Davidis, Henriette, " Practical Cook Book," 1897. Published by C. N. 

Casper, Milwaukee, Wis. $1.25. 

5. Fakmer, Fannie Merritt, "Boston Cooking Scliool Cook Book," 1907. 

Publislied by Little, Brown &, Co., Boston, Mass. $1.80. 
G. Fox, Minnie C, " Blue Grass Cook Book," 1904. Published by Fox, 
Duffield & Co., New York City, N. Y. $1.50. 

7. French, Allen, " The Book of Vegetables and Garden Herbs," 1870. 

Published by the Macmillan Company, New York City, N. Y. $1.75. 

8. Hunt, Caroline L., " Fresh Fruits and Vegetables as Conservers of 

Other Staple Foods," 1917, Farmers' Bulletin No. 871, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. United States Food Leaf- 
lets, Nos. 1 to 20, by the U. S> Department of Agriculture and the 
U. S. Food Administration, Washington, D. C* 

9. KiNNE. Helen, and Cooley, Anna M., " Foods and Household Manage- 

ment," 1915. The Macmillan Company, New York City, N. Y. $1.10. 

10. Lippincott's Home Manual on Food. 

11. Spring, Helen M., "Individual Recipes," 1909. Publislied by John C. 

Winston Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 25 cents. 

12. SoUTHWORTH, May E., " 101 Mexican Dishes," 1914. Published by Paul 

Elder & Co., San Francisco, Calif. 75 cents. 

13. " Uncle Sam's Cook Book," a price list of bulletins on American foods 

and cooking, United States Government. Superintendent of Docu- 
ments, Government Printing OlHce, Washington, D. ('. 

14. Wilson, Elizabeth L., and Huggins, Mollie, "Good Things to Eat." 

1909. Published by the Publishing House of the M. E. Churcli, 
South, Smith & Lamar, Agents, Nashville, Tenn. $3. 

15. Rose, Mary Schwartz, " Feeding the Family." Publislied by IMacniillan 

Company, New York City, N. Y. $2.10. 
10. Wessling, Hannah, "Use of Wheat Flour Substitutes in Bread Mak- 
ing," 1918, Circular No. A-91, States Relations Service, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, Washington, 1). C. 

* Other information available on this and related subjects can be 
obtained from the same source. Ask for Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 250, 
I'reparation of Vegetables for the Table; 712, School Lunclies; 717^ Food for 
Young Children; 808, How to Select Foods, I. What the Body Needs; 817, 
How to Select Foods, II. Cereal Foods, and 824, How to Select Foods, III. 
Foods Rich in Protein. 



(•ii.\i'Ti:i: will 

CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 

('wM.NC ("lull iiiid lldiiic I )i'iii(iiist r;il ioii Wofk is (•(inducted 
uiidii' the coiijtci'af i\(' ;iLrn'('iiiriii hct wccii tlic several state col- 
le^^fs ol" a^'riculliire and the rnited States Deiiartnieiit of Airri- 
eulture. In tlie South all this work is directed iiy the oi-frani/.a- 
tion ol" siMte ;ind county atreuts. In the North and West much 
ol' the rural liiniir dciiioiist I'at ion wm-k is orffani/.ed as a part of 
the coiiiiiy lanii bureau or county extension service. The mem- 
l)erslii|) ill this orjianization consists of represt^ntative men and 
women who are interested in agriculture and home making. Some 
bureaus charge a nominal membership fee or raise funds from 
other sources to supplement state and federal appropriations. In 
this farm bureau there is an executive committee and under this 
executive ccmunittee are several committees representing the 
various phases of the work. In the executive committee there is a 
l)i'esideut, a vice-president, secretary and treasurer. After tlu' 
county program has been selected project leaders are appointed 
to represent the work of this executive committee. This com- 
mittee considers general administrative (piestions and program of 
work. The county agent, home demonstration agent, and club 
leader are responsible to this committee for the work they do in 
the county. 

Thei-e is a community connnittee consisting of a chairman 
and two to six members. Each member is selected because of 
special fitness to direct some important part of the community 
program of work. 

County project committees are automatically formed with the 
executive committee project leader as chairman and the com- 
munity leaders as members. Thus one committee considers espe- 
cial I \- the work for men and farms, another committee the work 
for women and homes, and still another looks after boys' and girls' 
2S2 



CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 283 

clnb work. All of these committees cooperate and nsnally work 
from the same office and are represented in their activities by 
cooperative paid leaders. 

The basic principle of such an orp-anization is the fact that 
it is the work of the people and that there is one rural prob- 
lem involving- aurienlture, home making, and boys' and girls' 
clnb work. 

There are no\v county leaders for boys' and girls' clnb work 
in over half of the counties in the northern and western ter- 
ritory, besides about 600 paid home demonstration ag^ents. In 
the 419 counties organized in the South in 1916 there 
were about 60,000 girls enrolled to carry on canning and poultry 
club work, together with related activities in sewing, cooking, and 
gardening. 

Aim. — One of the objects of the work is to develop a skill that 
shall increase the economic earnings of girls and women in the 
country. Their home has many functions not performed by the 
city home. It is a producing as well as a consuming center. Its 
contribution to the income of the farm, especially in saving the 
waste and expense of conducting farming operations, often meas- 
ures the difference between profitable and unprofitable farming. 
The skill and business ability of farm housewives and children 
are a notable contribution to the economic resources of the 
farm. In many cases incomes must be increased before stand- 
ards of living can be raised or progressive community enterprises 
fostered. Proceeding upon this basis, the work in the South 
has added materially to the wealth, health, and happiness of 
country people. 

Financing the Work. — In the beginning, generous financial 
help from the General Education Board — the corporate trustees 
of a fund of -more than $50,000,000 given by John D. Rockefeller 
for educational purposes — made possible the free development of 
this work. This was soon followed by state and county appro- 
priations. In 1914 Congress made appropriations to take the 
place of those being made by the General Education Board, and 
the Smith-Lever Extension Act of 1914 brought its first Federal 



2g4 srccKssKi I, cawinc and im:i:si:i;\ in(; 

ii|i|)H'|iri;it ions in llM."). ilms '.''iviiiLr |i<-i-iii;inriit sii|i|)(ir-t Id di'iiioii- 
str;ition \\nr|< in ;iL;i'i<Milt iin- and liitinr (•(•(inninics. In l!)17 iIi<tc 
was in tlir !."» Sdnllicni stales an oi-jraiiizatioii nl" alidiit ')()() 
<-(»iiMti»'s suprivisfd In- l:{ slate. 21 assistant state, If) district, and 
4'M edunt y a^'-ents. niakinj.'- a total nf 54;5. 

in April, 1!»1S, tliei-e were about lO.Sf) Iloine l)eiiidiist?-ati<»n 
agents einpld\cd in the Soutlieru States. 

During- l!tl4-r.tir) in forty states slifrhtl.v over .-firjd.dod was 
spent in home eeononiies demonstrations, while in l!M<i-l!)17 
in foi-ty-eiiilit states $7r)0.()()(l was allotted, an increase of over 
l.'IO per cent in two yeai's. Tliis money was derived from t lu- 
ll ni ted States Department of Afjriculture, the state colleges of 
ayrieidtnre, Federal and state cooperativie extension act funds, 
and county and other local sources. In 191G the allotment of funds 
for extension work for farm women was derived fi-om tlie follow- 
ingr sources: $107,000 from funds appropriated directly to the 
Ignited States Department of Agriculture, .t2()0,()0() from Federal 
extension act funds, $120,000 from state extension act funds, 
$82,000 from direct state appropriations in addition to the 
amount appi'opi'iated by the state to offset the Federal coiijiera- 
tive extension I'uiids, $178,000 fi-om county ai)i)i'opi'iations. and 
about $S(),()i 10 from other miscellaneous sources. 

Initial Work. — Following: the development of United States 
Farm Demonstration Work as a means of instructing farm men 
and sul)se(piently of boys' corn clubs, because boys also insisted 
upon being enrolled as " demonstrators," there was a very in- 
sistent demand for activities for girls which should give them 
oppoi'lunity to carry on sl<ill'iil worl< in their homes and enter into 
friendly contest with one anotliei-. The oi)i)oi-tunity to influence 
and instruct adults through the interests of their children was 
recognized fi-om the first. 

Activities which have fundanuMital coiuiection with every 
country home, and which involve the need for accurate informa- 
tion and skill in doing, were selected. During 1910 some girls' 
tomato clubs were organized in South (.'arolina and Virginia, with 
the aid of teachers and other school officials. These girls culti- 



CANNINO C'lAMi OK(!ANIZATlUN 3g5 

vated tenth-acre plots of tomatoes, following some simple in- 
♦striietions furnished by the Office of Fann Demonstration Work, 
and canned their vegetables under the instruction of one of its 
representatives. The results of this experiment were made the 
basis during the next year for the organization of from two to 
four counties each in the states of South Carolina, Virginia, and 
]\rississippi, under the leadership of women who were appointed 
to take charge of each state and with the aid of a few county 
workers whose services Avere secured for brief periods in the can- 
ning season. In 1912 eleven states had workers in charge with 
160 counties organized, and in 1917 every Southern state was 
organized, and similar plans are rapidly developing in the North 
and West. 

The State Agent. — In the beginning of the girls' canning club 
work a state agent or organizer was appointed. To help her in 
each county organized, a capable woman was secured for about two 
months in the year to hold the canning demonstrations in the 
summer and give what volunteer help she could in spring and fall. 
The clubs were organized and the first instruction was given 
through the schools where the girls could be met in groups. Cor- 
respondence and an occasional visit from the county agent had 
to suiRce as instruction and supervision until the canning season 
opened, when regular field meetings, in w^ay of canning demon- 
strations for groups of members, were held at central points in the 
county. Again in autumn, the collecting of results and the hold- 
ing of an exhibit of canned products were largely volunteer work 
of the county agent. The results which these workers obtained 
were so notable that in a short time this general plan was adopted 
permanently, the period of employment for the county agent in- 
creasing rapidly to nine or twelve months. 

The girls' canning clubs, with a tenth-acre garden as the basis 
of each individual 's work, have made possible a gradually evolved 
four years' program of work which thousands of girls have eagerly 
entered upon. Each year finds a larger percentage of these girls 
continuing the program and finishing the season's activities. As 
in all real demonstration work, the girl becomes a "demonstra- 



'J.SG 



SrCCKSSI'll. ( ANMNd AND I'KKSJiKNI NC 



toi". " Sill' M'-Ti'i't's to lolliiw iiist niflioiis ;iiul use ;i|)|)ri>vi(l iiil-IIi- 
()(ls; licr wuik ,111(1 its rrsiilts Ijciiij; iii-cnuiplislicd witli move skill, 

'.Mcatcr t-flicieiicy, and sliow- 
iii^'^ liiici- quality than tiiat 
wliirli lias heretofore been 
know II, heeome an olgect 
lesson loi- others and the 
(•(•iiiri- of inilnciK'C in tlie 
lioiiic and eonnnunity. Eaeh 
season l»rinj,'S its characteristic 
activity of natural work, ac- 
companied Ijy the stimulus of 
individual ownership and 
jri'oup contests in skill and 
definite accomplishment. 

Four-year Program of 
Work. — Since the mastery of 
some definite phase of work 
is essential for each year, a 
systematic ])ro,tiTam has been 
woiked out. During the first 
year the girls select tomatoe.s 
as their main crop, learninir 
a great deal about the cultiva- 
lion of this vegetable and how 
to market both fresh and 
canned ])i'oducts. They ac- 
quire considerable horticul- 
tural skill in managing their 
gardens. The financial rec- 
ords they keep give a good 
l)usiness training. For the 
public (leiuonsl rations which they give for the benefit of their 
communities, these girls find it necessary to make attractive 
uniforms, aprons, caps, towels, holders, etc. This gives sewing a 
vei-y definite ])lace in tlieii- work-, and il is done for a special 
l^nrpose rather than for the sake of a lesson. 




Fio 135. — "The home women of the coun- 
try, if they will t^ive their minda fully to this 
vital subject of food conservation and train 
themselves in household thrift, can make 
of the housewife's apron a uniform of national 
dgnificance."- — D. F. Houston, Sirretary of 
Agriculture. 



CANNIJSI^ CLUIJ ORdANIZATlON" 



287 



An instance of tlie use of such uiiifornis is given in the report 
of a county agent, as foHows : 

" The meeting at Pheba was especially interesting. Sixteen canning 
club girls in white uniform, cap, and apron gave a program witli club songs 
and yells. Afterwards they served a two-course luncheon to the mothers 
and teachers. The latter were especially interested and announced their 
intention of going l)ack to their schools and have their club members make 
caps and aprons and learn the club songs." 




Tlie use of these uniforms has a tendency to make popular 
suitable working clothes for girls and women. Advanced girls 
continue their sewing by making uniform dresses of appropriate 
design and material. In a number of the states they have chosen 
pink or blue chambray for their dress material, each member hav- 



oys SUCCKSSl'LL CA.NMM; AM) I'llKSKIlVI NC 

in;: the pcivilc^'c (if cliiKisiti'^' citlici- (Milor she jtrcfrfs. With this 
(•(iiiiliinat ioii of attcaclivc pink ami liliir drcsst's, with white iiiii- 
lorm api'diis ami caps, a ^'coiii) of tlicsc ^'ii'ls, witli their coiiiity 
a{^ents in all-wliite, rcscinl^lc a hii^'c hunch of sweet peas. Tan 
or gray linen crash makes very neat nnifoi'ms wlnn worn with 
the white ajd'ons. In sonic sections near the coast where colored 
material (piickly fades, white uniforms are more satisfactory for 




Fig. 137. — Another style of garden umiorui. 

canning work. Of course, the uniform dress worn for this work 
should be light weight, and of such material as can be often and 
easily washed. In 1910, in 410 organized counties in the 15 South- 
ern States, 21,172 girls reported the making of 23,767 aprons, 
caps, holders, and towels, and 3875 uniform dresses to be worn for 
public demonstrations (Fig. 135). 

The white dresses are not appropriate for the garden work 
among vines and dirt, as they soil easily and arc likely to become 



CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 



289 



stained. The gardening uniform which has been adopted in some 
sections is the bloomer and middy blouse combination. The 
regular gymnasium bloomers are suita])le for this purpose. Women 
working in agriculture because of war conditions abroad adopted 
the bloomers for reason of comfort, convenience, and economy. 
The bloomer overalls for women are on the market in America, 
and have been adopted in several factories (Figs. 136, 137, 
and 138). 

An attractive gardening set consisting of an apron for tools 
and a kneeling pad might be made of matting, burlap, denim. 




oilcloth, or heavy canvas. IMatting lined with brown denim and 
bound with red tape makes an attractive color combination 
and is very suitable material, because the color does not show 
soil easily. 

This equipment is easily made and will be found most useful 
in the garden, especially during the transplanting seasons. The 
making of the garden kneeling pad and apron gives opportunity 
for teaching something about sewing and will arouse more interest 
in garden work. The garden pad is used to kneel upon when 
planting seeds and transplanting plants. This work can be done 
19 



o;)() SL'ccKssi ri. (■anmn(; and i'i;i;si:ii\ inc; 

with iiiui't' case ami ruin luci , aiiii tlic use of tlic jjad ami aprun 
will protect tlic c'lotliiiig a ^M'cat deal when woi'kiiijj in the t^ardfii. 
The pocUct arraiijri'iiii'iit in the pad is cuiiveniciit for earryiii^' the 
small jtlanis which arc lo hr transplanted. Thi- ajjron is a eoiii- 
paiiiitii i)icee and is used i'or carrying tunls — planting stick, 
pi-uning shears, trowil, and jjarden line. A snudi pocket for seeds 
lui^dit be stitched on the front of the middle pocket to make the 
a|)ron a little more complete (Fig. KV-i, p. 'Ul). 

During the second year two vegetable croj)s are culti\ated, 
these being chosen with definite regard to liome needs and mai- 
keting conditions. In addition to tlie canned vegetables, many 
clubs market soup mixtures, saucis, and special products \\hich 
have been originated for them, like Dixie relish and B. S. Chutney. 
Sewing is continued in the making of nniform dresses of attrac- 
tive and apjiropriate design and material. 

During the next two years perennial gardens are started and 
either small fruits or perennial vegetables, suited to the locality 
or especially attractive for market, are planted. ^lany girls 
who have proceeded thus far are ready to make a reputation for 
special products from Southern fruits, such as the fig, scupper- 
nong, May haw, and guava, or to succeed admirably with the 
Spanish pepper, for which a great demand exists. The ])repara- 
tion of their vegetable products for the table and contests in 
bread making are given considerable place. In many instances 
winter gardening is carried on extensively. 

With the increased supply of wholesome food, by means of 
the fall garden, canning and poultry club products, the agent has 
a wonderful opportunity in the fall and winter to get into the 
kitchens and teach the preparation and cond)ination of these 
products for serving. 

SUGGESTED PROGRA^r FOU I.OCAI, CIKI.s' ( Hit M KKTI N(iS ' 

Fchninri/ 

('all iiu'ctiiig to ordiT. Orj^'ani/.c. 

Distribute daily record books, e.xjilaiii sainc and iiij,'(> the im])ortance 
of attendiiiff all club meetings, local, spriiii,' aiul fall rallies, in-titutes. 
and fairs. 

Discuss soil best suited to tomatoes, Bordeaux mixture, const nul ion of 
Iiotl)ed and cold frame (show model, if possible), and choice of seed. 

' By Misa Minnie L. Garrison, County Agent, Edgemoor, S. C. 



CANNING CLLJ{ UKCJANIZATION 291 

March 

Call meeting to order. RoU-eall. Minutes (review of last lesson). 
Reports of work done since last meeting. 

Measurement of one-tenth acre plot and preparation. 

Transj)lanting to cold frames, etc. 

]{ookl)inding for cook books, histories, etc. 

Game or club yell. 

April 

Call meeting to order. Eoll-call. Minutes. 

\"ary with bread and poultry program. 

Bread. — Judging bread. 

Distril)uto helpful bulletins. 

Refreshments — eggs in nest or goldenrod. 

Poultry. — Talks on poultry, breeds, hatching, etc. 

Demonstrate candling or testing eggs. 

Decorate Easter eggs or have egg hunt. Remind girls of true mean in:,' 
of Easter. 

Kodak pictures. 

Maij 

Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes. 

Plain sewing, based on uniform cap and apron. Apron party. 

Distribute copies of club songs and yells. Practice same for spring 
meeting. 

Other instructions concerning special meeting. 

June 
Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes. Reports on benefits de- 
rived from having attended spring meetings. 
Study cultural instructions. 
Visit plot and give comments. 

Demonstrations. Pruning and staking, repeat Bordeaux spray, etc. 
Discuss cook books, recipes, and drawings for same. 
Serve salads, utilizing vegetables. 
Kodak pictures, miiaic. 

July 
Fireless cooker. Canning demonstration. 
Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes. 
List of canning supplies, literature prepared in advance. 
Canning demonstration, using fruit and vegetables. 

Emphasize grading, sterilization, full pack, attractive pack and quality. 
Dinner. 

Get together, talk over morning's work. Demonstrate jelly making. 
Suggest " Canning Christmas Presents." 
Distribute literature before leaving. 
Songs and yells. 



^^[\2 .SLLCKssFi I. cANMNc; AM) i'i:i;sKi;\ l.\(; 

A III/ II. si 
Call iiifctin;,' to order. Itnll call. Miiniti-s. 
I'raclirc faiiiiiii;.' s|ir(ial |iro(liul.s. 
i;;i>kct inakiii;^. 

Srptoiilirr 
l.iifiaiy |ini;,'raiii. Slmrt liii.--iiicss iiicctiiij,'. 
lioll-call — answer w itii ciirreiit events, ete. .Ma-^'aziiie article or rejinrt 
on interestinj,' library Itook. 

Kead sketeli of Doctor Knapp's life. 

Word huildinj,', iisin;,' letter.s coinpo.sin;,' dn!) motto. 

Puzzle — disseeted Ial)els. 

Sliow pictures of j,'ood e.xliihit-^ witli projeit<jr if jxissilile. 

Ortnhr,- 
(all incetin;,' (() order. Itollcall. Minute.-;. 
tJo over records a{,'ain. Sum up. 
Demonstrate labelling, packing, etc., for fairs, 
.ludfring canned goods. 
Assign work for girls during fair. 

Cooperation Between School and Home. — Tt can he easily 
seen tliat all of tliesc activities are carried on in the home and 
form an integral part of the life of the girls themselves, but every- 
where the seliools are taking a very active part in promoting this 
work. The cooperation of the teacher is always es.sential. 

In each community organized the girls are selected and en- 
rolled through the school early enough to undertake gardening 
After the club members have been enrolled and they have selected 
plots for their one-tenth acre gardens the teacher can render valu- 
able assistance. AVith her aid the girls study the instructions for 
the purpose of securing information as to how to carry on the 
work at home. The teacher giving the best cooperation correlates 
the woi'k \\ itli regular lessons in n^ading, arithmetic, language, 
drawing, and really makes it a part of the school life. She often 
organizes the members into clubs and holds the first meeting at 
the school. Here thej^ are taught the construction of a hotbed 
or cold frame, and sometimes one is built on the south side of the 
school building: plants are raised in it for the home gardens, and 
a number of lessons are based on the planting and care of these 
beds. When these plants have growui large and strong enough 



CANNINC, CLUB UK(JAN1ZAT10N 095 

to transplant, a meeting is planned at the home of some elnb mem- 
ber, where they learn the i)rineii>les of transplanting. 

Clnb work furnishes eonstant opportunity to enliven school- 
room routine with vital interests and fine motives for study. 
Many instances of the helpful reaction which these clubs have 
upon the schools have been reported. In a similar way they give 
the schools a better opportunity to bring influences to bear di- 
rectly upon the homes. 

Community Activities. — By the time school closes the work 
has reached an interesting stage and the club members continue 
to work together. At this season the county agent meets with 
the clubs on the one-tenth acre plot, gives cultural instructions, 
and makes preparation for the canning work. Midsummer brings 
the canning season, and here again at the home of the club mem- 
ber having the first ripe tomatoes the girls of the community 
meet to work together, with the county agent demonstrating how 
to take each step in the canning, and the girls doing the actual 
work under her supervision. After one or two such demonstra- 
tions the girls acquire sufficient experience to give a public 
demonstration in canning, at which the neighbors are taught 
what the girls are already skilled in doing. 

Cooperation for community development or benefit to the 
group is now beginning among farm people. Club members 
often undertake it more readily than their parents. 

Instances of neighborly cooperation are not rare. One county 
agent reported that upon visiting one little girl, named Gladys, 
she found that she had been ill for two weeks and unable to set 
out her tomato plants, which were fast becoming too large to be 
transplanted easily. I^pon the agent's visit to the next home she 
reported the instance, and a member of the same club immediately 
suggested that they get together and do the transjilanting. In a 
short time six girls met at Glad\'s's home. The litth> sick girl 
was able to be carried out in a chair and sit in the shade to watch 
the others happy at w^ork transplanting the tomatoes for her. 
Words failed and tears came instead when she tried to thank her 
friends for this kindness. 

A county agent reported that the home of one of her club 



•j'.il SUCCKSSriL CANNINC AND rilKSKIlVlNi; 

Jii(itilici-.s was destroyed ])y tii-c. lictui-c she had i»|»|t(irt unity lo 
visit this cititiiiiiiiiity, tlic prcsidiiit nt" llic i-luli liad callcil a iru'ct- 
iiij^ and its iiicmiIhts had arran^'cil to ^'ivr a "showfi"" ol' canned 
j)i(»diR'ts lo the elub member lo w liose iamily this loss Jiad oe- 
eurrctl. 

Not oidy is individual initiative aroused, ])ut elements of lead- 
ei'ship ai'e develojx'd in country communities whei-e they are most 
iieechMl. As a means of developing leadtTship, many state schools 
y;ive short courses for j)ri/e-\vinnin<j club mendiers from the 
various counties. These {j:irls have pi-oved tlieii- etHiciency by suc- 
cessful woi'k and ali'eady i)ossess (jualitics of leadei'sliip. l'{)on 
beinjr j,'iven definite inslructiou in even a few lines of work tliej 
can be insjjired to retui'ii to their comnumities and extend to 
otliei's the same aid. These jj^irls frefpiently liei-ome the ot'ficers 
of their clubs and the local representatives throu^di whom the 
county ajrcut "works in developin<r nuiny eommunity enterprises. 

Dui'iii;^- one short course each ]ii-ize winner <rave the story of 
her year's woi'k and told how she spent the money earned from 
her tenth-acre fi'ai'den. One girl had for two successive years paid 
her expenses at the county high school out of her earnings: an- 
other was helping hei" brother tln-ough college : another purchased 
a fine cow, and still another enabled her father to hold his cotton 
until spring by making her funds availa])le foi' certain family 
expenses. In every instance the business experience was one 
which reflected dignity and judgment. 

The County Agent. — It can be readily seen that the centers 
of influence in demonstration work are the farms and homes 
where individuals, perhaps a modest little girl or quiet, home- 
loving woman, make the demonsti'ations which teach a lesson to at\ 
entire community. This lesson carries grvater weight and is 
more convincing than if made by a skilled specialist fi-om a dis- 
tant instit\ition, but it can be accomplisluMl sm-eessfully only 
M'hen there exists an organization whose leaders have won ]ierma- 
nent place in the confidiuice and afTection of the ])eople with 
whom they work. In the oi-ganization of liome demonstration 
work in the South the county agent holds this imtiortant place. 
A state agent with headquarters at the State College of Agri- 



CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 395 

culture directs the work, and frequently technical help is given 
by specialists wlio come from the same institution. The state 
agent is, in an important way, the connecting link between the 
county agent and the force of extension workers whose head- 
quarters are at the state colleges and in the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture. 

The county agent becomes the personal medium through which 
information is furnished and by whom skilful demonstrations 
are directed. The efificient county agent must be a leader and an 
organizer. She must possess fine sympathy and good judgment. 
Her knowledge of people and conditions in her county must be 
wide and accurate. To all this there must be added good training 
in home economics and a constantly increasing knowledge of the 
lighter branches of agriculture, such as horticulture, dairying, 
and poultry raising. 

Demonstration w^ork for women has made most rapid progress 
where preceded by at least a year of work among girls. Definite 
results are more quickly obtained among young people who have 
high enthusiasm and who, fortunately, lack experiences which 
suggest failure and who are without a sense of caution which 
previous failures suggest to the mature mind when new enter- 
prises or new methods are proposed. Then, too, the mother's 
gratitude for training given to her daughter paves the way for 
active acceptance on her part of instruction and help. 

Demonstrations Among Women. — Improvement in manage- 
ment of rural homes has not kept pace with that of the farm itself, 
nor can it be compared to the management of the city home from 
which has been taken every creative industry. For these reasons, 
one line of demonstration which has been eagerly undertaken 
by hundreds of women is the making and use of labor-saving 
devices and securing more labor-saving equipment from the out- 
side. The economic needs of women on farms demand greater 
skill in the constructive activities which are, fortunately, theirs 
to manage and from which the opportunity for financial income 
and the satisfaction of creative work of high order rightfully 
come. Therefore, demonstrations in poultry raising, home dairy- 
ing, etc., are among the first to be undertaken. 



VIk; sL( I kssi I I, (.\NMN<; wd i'i;i:si:i;\ i nc 

A I'nnn nf iir^';irii/;it ion uliidi lias Itccii ruiind very successful 
is tli;it t'ni' the (•((lipcr'at i\f iiiarUd in;.'' ot" |if<i(liicts which I'csulls 
I'roiii cci'tain dciiiDiist rat inns. ()!' thi-sc, sonic of tlic most success- 
ful have heeti oi-;rani/e(l for the |)urpose of disptisinj; of poultry 
prniluiMs. in one I'oiinty nine i'lsu: <*ircles sold 4'i7<) dozen eg<^ 
in a few inoMllis. The products were so carid'ully jxraded that hel- 
ler prices were secured for them than had heeu received hy indi- 
viduals licfnre earryitiL'' on llie work c()(")|)ei-at ively. 

Deuionsl i-alioiis involvirif? the j)reparati(»n of food for the 
table, a?id sarntary Tueasures, ai'c also popular. While the reports 
do not show the extent of the woi'k, i1 is iii1crestin;r, howcvci-, to 
note that during' the year IDKi the county women a^n-nts enrolled 
and instructed '.M,^^^) <rir]s in canniufi: clubs, 8!)11 <:irls in poultry 
clubs. 21,08;^ women as home d(Miionslrators, and 2211 women in 
jioultry clubs. The number of clubs oi-j^anized for women during 
this year was 063; a total of 27,260 meetings was held, with an 
attendance of 47G, 3G6. The number of girls reporting results 
from cainiing work was 21, GO."). Of this number, 7058 made dem- 
onstrations in cooking club ]iroducts and 11,384 made bread 
deiiionsli'ations. There were repoiled :]7){) scholarships won as 
prizes by the club girls. The total number of containers of fruit 
and vegetables packed by the women and girls under demonstra- 
tion methods was 3,318,481, with a totid value of $669,839.56. 
The total nuudjer of winter garden demonstrations by the girls 
and women was 7649. A total number of 37 v^g circles was or- 
ganized by the women and girls, and the total value of poultry 
products was .*f^53,i)52.76. 

The following imjirovements or devices were made or installed 
under the leadei-ship of tlie women agents: 3058 homemade fire- 
less cookers have eome into common use, accompanied in many 
instances by the purchase of kerosene stoves. There have been 
reported over 2000 demonstrations made in the nse of a homemade 
iceless refrigerator by which the problems of the sanitary han- 
dling of milk and iinpi'ovoncjit in butt(>r making are largely 
solved. A good b(>giiniing has b(MMi made in installing 264 home 
water systems, 57 inex]iensive homemade shower-baths, and a 
number of improved sewage disposals. 



CANNING CJ.UJ3 UlUiANIZATlUN .21)7 

III a miinber of counties diMuoiistratioiis aloiij^ sanitary lines 
were begun with eanii)ai<ins a<iainst Hies wliieli involved the nuik- 
ing of -laOr) Hy-traps in a short time, followed by other active 
measui'es against this pest. One thousand two hundred and 
seventy houses have been screened as a result of these "fly cam- 
paigns. " 

The making of a few practical devices has been a great stim- 
ulus to a large number of people who have contril)uted clever 
ideas and useful models for many kinds of work. County agents 
rapidly receive demands for advice in arranging kitchens and 
adding built-in conveniences. To meet these demands, extension 
specialists in farm mechanics are devoting considerable time to 
assisting the county agents with specifications and plans. 

Many labor-saving devices have been made or installed in more 
conveniently arranged kitchens. Tlie following were also made 
in 1916 under the supervision of the women county agents : 

Kitchen cabinets 180 

Floor mops 119 

Number of wlieel trays 22.5 

Number of ironing boards 243 

Some valuable work has been done in home butter making for 
the market. In addition to the iceless refrigerators, the following 
improved home dairy equipment has been made or purchased 
under the guidance of county agents : 

Butter paddles 63.5 

Butter moulds 024 

Thermometers 241 

Shotgun cans (for haiidliiijj: milk) 214 

Barrel churns 180 

Number of hand butter- workers 79 

Number of pounds of butter made under demonstra- 
tion methods 76,.'51 3 

In any demonstrations undertaken, whether in the making and 
use of labor-saving devices, in better utilization of farm products 
for the table, management of sanitary or hygienic problems, etc., 
it must be recognized that in addition to technical information 
bi'ought from the outside there exist in any community many ex- 
cellent practices and much valuable information which are not in 



2i)S SUCC'KSSITL CANMNC AND i'i;i;si:i;\ I \( ; 

(•(iiiiiiKdi use. To liiid such jii'aclicrs .nid acoiisc individuals to ;i 
seiisi' of tlitir ol)li^Mli(iii in cxtciulin'; tlicrri to tlitdr l.ss rortunat-^ 
iioiplihors is often a valiialilc part of the work of the county aj-'cnt. 
As soon as this is iin(l(M-tak('n,or whenever a few individual women 
successfully carry out ddinite deinonsti-at ions in their homes, ac- 
tive demand arises for eommunity orjrani/.ation which shall Itrintj 
totrother those liavin<r a common interest in some line of work and 
in aildilinn ix'wr (tppoiM unity for social life and recr<'ation. ( )r- 
panizations thus developetl assume a permanent [)laee in their 
communities. 

With tiie initial work that has been accomj)lislied, the fine 
support and cooperation given by many existing organizations 
and institutions, with Federal, state, and county appropriations 
rapidly being made, and a demand for the organization of counties 
far exceeding each year's possibilities, it is safe to assume that this 
phase of extension work is permanently established. It has met 
the need of the most progi-essive, as well as the least developed, 
homes and communities. 

The county agent now has an avenue of approach into every 
activity of the home. With increased opportunity for training, 
which institutions are giving by adapting their courses for her 
need, and with the opportunity for permanent service in hei* 
county, the work of the county woman agent will continue to be 
a most potent influence for progressive and happy country 
homes. 

The activities described are typical of the home demonstra- 
tion work now being conducted in the 15 Southern States, and 
are fairly comparable with that more recently started in the 33 
Northern and Western States. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Martin. (). B.. and Creswkm.. Mary E., States Rolations Sorvico. V. S. 

Department of Afiriculture, Circular No. A-S2, "Canning (Miih and 
Home Demonstration Work." 

2. Martin, O. B., and Hill, I. \V.. States Relations Service. I'. S. Depart- 

ment of Afiriculture, Circular No. A-74. •'Organization of Boys' 
Agricultural Club Work in the Southern States." 



CANNINC; Cl.UB ORGANIZATION 299 

3. Benson, O. H., States Rolations Service, U. S. Department of Agricul- 

ture, Circular No. NR-;51, " Suggestions for Organization of iVlother- 
Daughter Clubs," and Circular No. NR-21, " Farm and Handicraft 
Clubs." Document 35, S-G, Home Canning Club Aprons and Caps.* 

4. Ward, W. F., Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul- 

ture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 566, " Organization of Boys' Pig Clubs." 

5. Lamon, Harry L., Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of 

Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 562, " Organization of Boys and 
Girls' Poultry Clubs." 

6. Senate Document No. 537, Government Printing Office, 1914, "Life of 

Dr. Seeman A. Knapp." (i.Jrd Congress, 2nd session. Senate Docu- 
ment 537. 

7. Lord, Isabel Ely, " Costume in the Cookery Laboratory," Journal of 

Home Economics, vol. 8, No. 2, Feb., 1916, American Home Eco- 
nomics Association, Baltimore, Md. 25 cents per copy, $2 per year. 

8. Knapp, Bradford, and Cheswell, ;Mary E., " Tlie Effect of Home 

Demonstration Work on the Community and the County in the 
South," U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book. $1.00. Sepa- 
rate, No. 710, 1916. 

9. Scott, Rhea C, '" Home LalK>r-Saving Devices," J. B. Lippincott 

Company, Philadelphia, Pa. $1.00. 

10. Creswell, M. E., and Powell, Ola, " Sewing for Girls' Club Work," 

revised, 1918, States Relations Service Circular, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

11. Reese, Madge, "Home Conveniences," Farmers' Bulletin No. 927, U. S. 

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

* These circulars are a part of the series of instructions used in 
the home canning club work for boys and girls in the northern and 
western states. The complete series includes: NR-21, NR-22, NR-23, 
NR-24, NR-25. NR-26. NR-2S, NR-29, NR-30, NR-31, NR-32, NR-34, NR-41, 
NR-47, NR-52, Farmers' Bulletin 839. 



CIIAl'TI-lK' XIX 

THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 

As Outlined by the North Carolina State Agent in Home 

Demonstration Work 

That IIicit is :in excclU'iit niarUrt I'oi* lioiiK'-caiiiUMl pi-odiicts 
of standard jxi-adf has Itct'ii ainj)Iy proved by the (iirls' Canning 
Clubs of tlie South. Just as soon as it was established in the 
minds of the puljlie that their products were to be depindcd 
upon for an extra number of whole fruit of uniform color and 
a weiprht runninir up to the maximum in a can, tiiere was no 
trouble in jjettinj? these cans on the pantry shelves of the house- 
wife, and, later, in increasing numbers on the slielves of the 
grocer. 

Five years ago, when the eamiing clul)s first began to can in 
tin for the market, they started with girls eager to earn money 
for themselves but absolutely untrained in the art of putting 
vegetaliles and fruits into cans and sterilizing them sufficiently 
well to insure their keeping qualities. Fortunately, these girls 
were young and impressionable, and they went in whole-heart- 
edlj' to carry out instructions in tlie new methods of canning 
wliicli the state supervisors were IjrinLMiisjr to them. 

Marketing. — In North Carolina it was back in 1912 that the 
I)rol)lfm of getting the products before the consumer began, 
although the girls had only 33,000 cans and these all filled with 
tomatoes. This was our first year in the organization, and both 
supervisors and girls were inexperienced in the commercial 
world. I can remember my consternation when the 33,000 cans 
were dumped upon me to sell, and every little club girl was 
asking that they be sold immediately, as she needed her money. 

Here we were with a large number of cans to l)e disposed of 
and with no reputation in the business world — worse than none, 
in fact, for we had to shoulder the repufation made by the usual 
carelessly packed {iroduct which the farmwife bi-ouirht to the 
grocer! Thinking it would be a good plan to sell in bulk, I sent 
samples of our tonuitoes to a large grocery- house in New York. 
'M)0 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 301 

The products wore examined and pronounced excellent, but in 
one of the cans there was found a very light-colored tomato, 
and, quite properly, !he firm refused to take any product that 
could not he relied i.pon as uniform throuiihout. 

Standardizing. — This criticism at the veiy outset of our 
marketing career probably did us more good than anything that 
could have happened. I felt that there might he a light-colored 
tomato secreted in every one of those 33,000 cans, and, calling 
into headquarters the fourteen supervising county agents, we 
had a heart-to-heart conference regarding a standard pack, and 
agreed that wc must aot seek an outside market until we had 
proved at home that we could put up an article that could be 
relied upon. These women Avent back to their territories to dis- 
pose of Avhat the club girls had produced among their own com- 
munity housewives. If any can was found not to be what it 
should be commercially it was replaced by the club member or 
money was refunded. Strict rules and regulations regarding 
standards were enfon ed, and if a girl infringed the rales, ig- 
norantly or carelessly, she was not allowed to use the label. 

The Girls' Own Responsibility. — In a surprisingly short 
time these little business women learned the necessity of uniform 
packs, and the agents set to work inaugurating market cam- 
paigns and inspiring the girls to assume the responsibility of 
the disposal of their own products. This they did by loading 
wagons with cans and bringing them into the towns and villages, 
selling in this manner every can they had filled. In many county 
papers advertisements w^ere run, saying that beans, peaches, 
tomatoes, berries, and so on, would be brought into town on Satur- 
day bj^ the canning club girls and orders ijiight be left with the 
county agent, whose address was given. 

Sawmills became a great source of revenue, many girls re- 
porting that they had sold out to the "hands" before they could 
put the labels on the cans. The first dealings we had with 
merchants were sales made to the small country grocer here and 
there who found his supply low at times and thought he might 
tiy a few cans of this "homemade stufl'. " As our output began 
to grow, in the larger towns where the housewives had eaten of 



:\U'j siiVKssi'TL ( ANM.N<; WD i'i:i:si:i:\ I Nc 

C()-()rHkATi\ !•; I'XTiixsiox work 

L\ AiiKlCULTlliK AND IKIMK i;<'i).NOHIi S IN .NulMll CAROLINA 

NORTH eARol.IXA A. \ Al. CoLLU.l-: 

Ni.rtli Ciiroliiia State l>c]iiirliridit of Atrriniltun'. I»ivi«i"ii of Home Doinonstnilli.n ^^..rk. 

I'liitoii Statis Driiartiiit'iitnf AtjriiiiJtMri', t'u-"iMniliii(f. Division of Markfts. 



Town of. 
Date .... 



Name of M 


erchant . . 










Deliver to 












Street No. 




., 


QNATURE or PURCHASIB 






NORTH 


CAROLINA 


GIRLS' 


CANNING 


CLUB 



, Doz, Cans Tomatoes (>' Per Doz, 

" String Beans 0^ " " 

. " " Blackberries " " 

, " " Peaches @ " " 

. " " Soup Mixture " " 

(T, " " 

@ " " 

(aj, " " 

Total $ 



Approved 191 

SIGNATURE OF MERCHANT 

FURTHER ORDERS FOR CANNED GOODS MAY BE PLACED 
WITH COUNTY AGENT 



SIGNATURE OF COUNTY A«ENT 



Town- 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 303 

our products and found them good, we decided to make house- 
to-house canvasses to secure orders tlu'ough grocers. 

Sales Demonstration. — Certain club members with initiative 
were given order books, with which they secured quite enough 
orders from the housewives to make the 4-H brand products 
well worth wliiU' to the grocer. Beautiful exhibits in glass were 
put in his window with "What you see in the glass you will find 
in the tin "; and, if he desired it, the county supervisor, with 
one or two of her girls, would go into the store and demonstrate 
the different ways in which 4-11 Brand ^ products might be used. 
These little business women in their white caps and aprons 
served string-bean salad, tomato bisque, tomato jelly, or demon- 
strated w'liat might be done with berries, peaches, corn, or kraut. 

Convincing the Retailer. — In one county the grocers w^ere 
quite hard to convince that anything made at home could pos- 
sibly be as good as what was shipped from the factories, and 
the county supervisor was forced to call in the Chamber of Com- 
merce to assist her in convincing them. It was decided that a 
committee of grocerymen should be asked to come to the Cham- 
ber and pass judgment on the standard brands of tomatoes sold 
in the town and on the Girls' Canning Club product. Two dis- 
interested persons selected cans — four different brands — and from 
a pile of several hundred 4-H Brand cans they selected two. The 
contents of these cans were poured into six glass bowds, each bowd 
being numbered. When they were set before the grocers for 
judgment the bowls receiving the best grade held Canning Club 
products, the others grading third, fourth, fifth, and sixth. This 
was enough to arouse interest in the grocers and was, with a 
house-to-house canvass for orders, sufficient to bring us a trade 
that carried every one of our county cans to the retail merchant. 

Selling Direct. — One of the best and most satisfactory' selling 
arrangements is to be made with institutions, colleges, and hotels, 
and our advanced girls are working up quite a trade in No. 10 
or gallon cans. If these institutions can rely upon you for a 
steady and uniform output they are glad to be in touch with a 

*The 4-H in the brand is a Canning Club slogan, signifying the de- 
velopment of the head, heart, hand, and health. 



■M)\ SDCCESSl-ri. C.\\\IN<; .\.\I) rUKSERVINC; 

ji|-(i(|iici|- who c.-iii iicli\t T |ii'()(|iicts tliry l<m»\v ti) III- well llaVDl'i'i I, 
clf.iii, .-iiid lii^'-li ill tilt- pcrcfiitji^'-c ol" pulp Id tlic call. 

Hcftic N'aii Tapsccitt and her inotlicr, of Alaiiiaiico ('(nuity, 
(lid sonic excellent wofk in this line, licttie says: "We lillcd 
last year an order ol" beans and pears for Swain llall, at the 
I'niversity of North Carolina, and when that was delivered I 
sent Mr. Tischler, tlu' man who hnys, a sample of my ttjmatoes. 




In;. 1 ;'.» —A Xiirth ("ar<ilinri canning club at work. 

lie immediately ordered 100 dozen. I had only 1003 cans, so 
I divided the order with a neij^hhor club member. Mr. Tischler 
told me if what I sent him proved satisfactory he would give me 
another order for this rear. 1 fi'uess it did, for he trave me an 
order for just as many as I M^onld accept. I tilled it and sent it 
to him yesterday, and lie wants another fifty dozen already. You 
see, it is no troul)le to find a market if you go at it right. 1 
correctly mark, label, and crate all products I send off." 

Club members undertake co()perative Avork more readily than 
will their parents. One enterprising girl informed her county 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OE CANNING 305 

agent that she had already booked orders for canned products 
to the value of $168. When asked if she eould iill them all, she 
said, "Oh, no; I expect to have a good many more orders than 
this when all my letters are answered, but there are eight of us 
ii! our club and we will do it together." (Fig. 139.) 

Two sisters of Mecklenburg County, jNIargaret and May Belle 
Brown, who have been club members since the work first started 
in the fall of 1912, have sent into state headquarters reports 
of each year's work. They have kept a strict account of the 
yield and of the expense of planting, cultivating, and market- 
ing, and in five years' time they have recorded a total profit of 
$S89..37. This does well indeed when the first year they cleared 
only .$45, and they suffered from the terrible fioods of July, 1916, 
that laid waste so many fields and gardens of the South. 

Profits Made by Five Girls in 1916. — Here are five girls 
whose 1916 marketing records are good : 

Profit 
Miss Elsie Yarborougli, Wake County $155.86 

Miss Bettie Van Tapscott, Alamance County 137.20 

Miss Ella ^laie Kelly, Richmond County 110.58 

Miss Emma Reid, Mecklenburrr County 109.71 

Miss Hessie Steele, Richmond County 101.45 

One Family Record. — The family record of Mr. and Mrs. 
Watts and their two daughters, Mary and Clyde, of Wake 
County, is interesting. They canned in the summer of 1916 : 

2000 cans tomatoes $200.00 

3000 cans sweet potatoes 300.00 

500 cans string beans 75.00 

200 cans corn 30.00 

300 cans butterbeans 00.00 

300 glasses apple jelly 45.00 

8 quarts fig pickle 3.20 

12 quarts fig preserves 9. GO 

8 quarts scuppernong preserves 6.00 

8 quarts tomato pickle 4.00 

200 glasses blackberry jam 40.00 



6536 total containers. Estimated value, $772.80 

Estimated cost, 193.20 



20 Profit, $579.60 



:{<»(; 



SI (CKSsKrL cAwiN*; AND ri;i:si;i:\ I Nc 



A Summary Showing Increase of Work Done by Years 
Since igi2. — Tliis is ii stiininaiy of ( laimiiitr ('liib work in Nortli 
Can.lina for a |.ri-i(..l of livr y.'ar.s, lUlL'-lItK; : 



' Number \ Number Number 
Yciir rouiilirn Kirl.s cans iind 
orKuiiizi'il rcportinK | jur8 


Value of 
, productH 


Total 
ro8t 


Total 
profita 


1912 

1913 


14 
14 
32 
37 
44 


229 

235 

814 

2,386 

3,453 


33,019 

70,000 

259,019 

633,447 

680,551 


$3,301 
7,fJ00 

35,301 
104,241 
117,810 


$825 
1,7.00 
9,425 

28,985 
29,432 


$2,476 
5 250 


1914 


25,935 


1915 

1910 


75,2.5<i 

88,.383 




Totals. . 






1,670,036 


$207,719 


$70,417 IS197.300 













DiAUUAM SllOWlNU (JKOWTII Of I'Kdllls loi; FiVK VhlARS 



1912. 

191.3- 
1911- 
191.5- 
1910. 



STANDARDS 

That a can may bo accepted liy tho trade and that a liome 
cuuncr may stand on an ecjual footing' witli tlie commercial 
canner, standards of excellence must be the same. First, it 
would be well to .select a standard variety of fi'uit or vegetable 
to can. AVhite peaches in one can and yellow in another, under 
the same brand, will not be tolerated by the trade unless nuirked 
white peach or yellow peach. This will apply to the shrivi'l pea 
and tlu; marrowfat — each ^^ood of its kind, but each needini; a 
delinite distin^uishinj^r name, even if they both appear under the 
same brand. 

The brand may be considered the family name which the 
packer adopts for his products, and each variety he puts out will 
have a given name which will distinguish it from the rest of the 
family. If a canner decides to put string beans upon the market 
lie should select a variety which has practically no strings and 
which is round and meaty and green in color. These qualities 
are demanded bv the trade aiixl can be had in tlit^ "Green Pod 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 3O7 

Stringless Bean." This bean, even when prrown to medium size, 
is still jniey, tender, and stringless, and has proved a nuich better 
canner than the old Valentine. 

Grading. — Beans are graded as to size, the first grading being 
given to the very small bean. This grade is called in commercial 
parlance "Rat-tail." The next grade is medium, and the third 
the broken bean. Each of these is excellent in its way, a's even the 
broken bean is gathered while it is tender and before well-formed 
beans are to be found in the pod. 

Tomatoes should be red-ripe, and to grade as extra standard 
the can should be packed full of either whole tomatoes or very 
large pieces. Sometimes the whole fruit is too large to put in the 
can opening and must be cut. One green or light-colored tomato 
will ruin your grade. 

Peaches should be graded according to the number of halves 
that can be packed in a can, and the contents of a can should he 
absolutely uniform in size and color. Some of the California 
peaches are so large that only eight halves can be packed in a No. 
3 can. These, of course, would have an extra fine grading. We 
cannot hope in the East to equal the size of the California fruit, 
but our flavor seems to catch the trade, and many of the Eastern 
peaches grade extremely well on that account. 

Berries will be graded as to size, only ripe fruit being used. 

Soup mixture, chow-chow, and ketchup must each be of a uni- 
form consistency, as must jams and preserves. 

The cans, jars, and bottles should be selected carefully and 
the number of ounces that they contain carefully noted on the 
label. Directions as to weights of cans and quantity of contents 
will be found elsewhere in this book. 

The Label. — The label for a can should be carefully chosen 
and must not be changed except under unusual circumstances. 
This label becomes the sign-patent of what is in the can, and any 
reputation which the contents of the can may make is recorded 
under its particular label in the purchaser's mind. To change 
often would be disastrous, as the public has begun to look for what 
it desires under a particular cover, and is a little suspicious that 
it is not getting quite as good if a «hange is made (Fig. 140), 



;j(jt) SI I ( 1 -~-i I 1. ( \\\i\'i \\i' n:i.>i.i;\ iN(i 




I'iG. 140. — Properly labelled jura. 



'^BlMitllJJi^ 




Flo. 141. — Sluudard packs iu lin. 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CxVNNING 309 

I was much amused at an old grocer who had been buying: 
from the Canning Clubs when all of the labels bore pictures of |he 
fruit or vegetable in the can. The new labels were very neat and 
attractive, but were without pictures, simply the name of the 
vegetable being printed on them. "I can't buy these," he said. 
"I would have to take out my spectacles and read the name on 
those cans every time I wanted peaches or tomatoes for a cus- 
tomer for the whole lot of them." 

Consult your grocers and see which style they prefer. Make 
your selection and stick to it. Every label should bear the name 
and address of the canner, and should have printed thereon the 
weight of contents of can (Fig. 141). 

When striving for an extra trade a well-advertised cleanliness 
of methods does much to bring a high-class patronage. To pub- 
lish that all canning is done under a wire-screened shed or in a 
fly-proof room, that the workers wear immaculate uniforms and 
close-titting caps, and that conditions around the canner are sani- 
tary in every respect is a great incentive to the hospital or hotel 
buyer. 

MARKETING POLICY 

During the fall and winter of 1916, for example, prices of 
canned products ran riot, and all preconceived ideas of what was 
a good marketing policy were scattered to the winds. A county 
agent who had heretofore found it wise and expedient to visit the 
town merchant in the spring and secure his order at a certain 
price for future delivery discovered that she had brought trouble 
upon herself unless she had designated some special girls to fill 
those orders at the time the contract was made. 

Prices eonnnenced to climb even in August, and by October 
tomatoes were selling at $1.10-$1.25 a dozen to the retailer, 
"When the agent thought it time to fill the contracts taken at $1 
she found many of her girls had sold at $1.25 and many 
more were holding for the advanced price that was certain to 
come. She had not put the matter before the girls in the spring to 
find if they would take the contract, believing that any of them 
would be glad of the chance to sell tomatoes in quantity at one 
dollar, as had been the case in previous years. It was therefore 



•MO SrccKSSMI. CANMN*; AM) I'llKSKUN l.\(; 

a ilistiiid sliock to liiid so in.iiiy aliTaily sold out or arraii<riiij; for 
iB^jlit'i' |iricfs. It was at llir last tlir i-liih sjiirit llial saved lici-, 
I'di" tlic ^'■ir'ls (•lid)l)t(| to^Tt licr and a^'i-rcd each oiif to rm-iiisli a 
part of the ofdcrs laki-n, lliat tin- loss iiii<,dd ii(»l fall lir-avily on 
any onr of tlnni and that the l)iisiii('ss honor of the clulis mifrlit 
Ik' saved. 

liiisiness jilans %vhieh liav(> l)een evolved from that exi>orieiiee 
seem to he sound. The eoiinty snpervisoi* will always niofr oi- less 
act as a ^u-helweeti fi'oin clnh ;iirl to iiicn-liant , lircaiise tlic nu-r- 
eliant finds it M'ry eoMvenienL to telephone her an order or to see 
licr altiMit the eoniiiijr <>nt|>ut when she is in town; hut after the 
a;^ent linds wlint llir Liroeer nreds she is wisely selectillf]^ eei'tain 
•jirls to <^() to him, make their own bai'^ains. and siprn any eon- 
tracts which may be eventually afireed uj^on. This puts the re- 
sponsibility on the proper per.son — the |ii-iidueer — and leaves the 
county agent free to advise, to keej) her eyes open for possible 
chances, to see that standards are maintained, and to look to the 
carrying out of the state's marketing policy: namely, not selling 
to the merchant and al.so to the consumer in any town. By this 
])olicy we avoid selling to the grocer and also to his customers, 
and so keep the good-will of both (Fig. 142). 

It was a little difficult to instill this into the girl at fii-st. She 
could not see why it was not proper to sell all the pi-oducts pos- 
si])le to the housewives at certain advanced prices, and wliat she 
could not sell in this way later to sell to the merchant at a less 
price. 

Oood business principles, however, are part of her training, 
and she sees the wisdom of the position when she and her fellow- 
club members are pi-oducing in such qiuintities that it is upon the 
grocer that they must rely to take the whole output. He pays 
promptly a satisfactory price — even if less than the consumer — 
and tile dilTerence is almost made uj) when the delivery of all 
products can be made at one time instead of in small lots. 

Prices. — Pi-ices are governed by supply and demand. In 
1915 fnmi S.") cents to $1 per dozen was a good price to receive 
for Xo. 3 tomatoes. Tn 191^-1017 tomatoes in No. 8 cans sold 
as high as $1 .SO to ^'2 ])ev dozen to the retailer. Nineteen hundred 



TIIK 15US1NE.SS SIDE OF CANNING 311 

and fifteen was a good garden year, and a large number of cans 
were put upon the market. Nineteen hundred and sixteen was 
one of the worst trucking years the country had ever known. Not 
only did the long drouglit of April and May damage the early 
plants until we could expect oidy half a crop, but in the South 
the July floods almost wiped out what remained. The supply 
of canned products Av^as therefore very short all over the coun- 
try, and the reserve supply of the jobbers and grocers had been 
called upon to such an extent that even a bumper crop in 1917 
would scarcely meet the demand of ordinary circumstances. As 
it was, war conditions made an extra supply necessary and put 
ui)on the home the responsibility of filling every available glass 
jar for home use and every tin can for market. 

While empty tin cans were high, the price of full cans was 
correspondingly high, and there appeared to be no chance of a 
canner losing out in the market if his pack were of standard 
grade. 

In North Carolina the club girls have found it at times not 
unprofitable to sell to the jobber. Indeed, there are circumstances 
under which this is advisable. If a supervisor finds herself with 
a large output in a county, the market not very brisk, and tlie 
young canners quite impatient to sell, as is sometimes the case 
in a new county, a jobber who will agree to take the whole output 
or as much of it as the girls will agree to let go may prove himself 
a friend in need. The price is not much below the retail man's, 
and the short length of time it takes for the girls to reimburse 
themselves gives them courage and determination to keep ©n at 
the work another year. In some eases drop orders for these job- 
bers may be accepted ; that is, a jobber will buy several thousand 
cans from a county, asking that one thousand be sent to John 
Doe, of Wilmington, and so many more to a firm in Charlotte, 
and so on. This saves the jobber th6 extra expense of receiving 
the whole shipment himself and reshipping to his customers. 

Principal Money Crops. — The club girls' principal money 
crops are tomatoes, string beans, and soup mixture, though the 
demand for sweet potatoes, corn, kraut, peas, berries, peaches, 
preserves, jams, and pickles is constantly growing. 



ni-j SIC cKssii I. ( .\.\.\IN(; AM) ri;i-.>i.i:\ IN<; 

l''ivt' _\(';il's ;i;_''i) tlic {.Mil ruiiiid it (lil'liciill ti» ;jTt licf |)l'ii(luct.s 
iiliuii the itiarkfl witlimit iiiiicli liacd uoi-k. Today, liccausc of 
lu'P lidclity to standards and Iht u illinjjncss to make j^ood any 
losses to the nirii-hant . In- is seeking lici' (»nt and in many (•()unti('s 
is taking- cxcry IN Itiand <'aii that is pnt upon the niackrt. In 
lIMt) tile canning dulis (d" the South coidd haxc sohl many times 
tlirif output, and thry aiv now hiokinj/ forward to a more than 
douhlcd output, fi'cliii^' that liiry havr an assuccd market for all 
tlicy fail pro(hn'i'. and a great <hil\' lo pcrfonn in |ii'oducin!j- 
everything" that t heir ener<j:.A' and detcrminat ion eaii wrrst fi'oiii 
tlie -rroiind. 

Shipping. — The lies! marketiiej' policy is to hiiihl up a tradr in 
\()Ui" own community, ('ertainly. uidess your canning output 
is large enou'i'li to niimliei- in eai'hiad lots, it would not be 
jirofitahle to ship to any great distance. Freight rates in small 
lots are high and rathei" imsatisfaetoi-y as to length f)f time in 
delivery. In .\oi-th Carolina we frecjueiitly ship t'roni one county 
to another when a territory lias ])roduced a lai'ge nnndier of cans 
and feels that its market might not be suf^eiently well estab- 
lished to dispose of them readily. l>ut we are eai'eful to ship to 
the nearest connty having a market for more than it prodnced, 
and. we make certain that the shipment goes over one line only. 

For the most part, cans shonld be shipped in eases containing 
two dozen. Look at the regulation tomato box in any groeei-y 
store and observe the size. These boxes should he marked on 
both ends by a label. Jnst the same label which you |)aste on 
youi" can will answer and should be placed in the middle of the 
end spaces. This will enable the grocer to detei'mine easily tlu^ 
contents of 1 he case. 

Last year I found some grocers and many institutions willin<r 
to have their ]iroducts in tin shi]iped to them in barrels. The 
freight rate is cheaper on liairds. and if excelsior is used in the 
jiacking to prevent scratchijig of labels, six dozen Xo. 8 cans can 
be sent very well in this rtM-eptacle. 

Shipment of products in glass can be made in barrels well 
packed with excelsior and arri\e with pi'actically no breakage. 
Pasteboard cartons art' good for small jiackages of glass. Glass is 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 



313 



best seut by express, though short-distance freight is quite safe for 
glass in barrels. The parcels post may be used to advantage for 
small packages, but they must be put in either a heavy pasteboard 
carton or a light wooden one and be well packed. 

The Invoice. — When an order is shipped, an invoice or list 
of what is included in the shi]nnent should be sent to the pur- 
chaser and a copy filed for the shipper's information. Never 




Fig. 142. — Canning Club Exhibit, North Carolina State Fair, 1915. 

neglect this, as much confusion results otherwise. A copy of the 
bill of lading should also be sent, but an express receipt should 
be kept by the shipper. 

The Payment. — Some merchants ask that shipment be made 
sight draft with bill of lading attached. This means that the pur- 
chaser pays before taking the shipment from the station. Any 
banker will explain this shipment. Other merchants prefer the 
bill sent and a certain length of time in which to pay it. Any 



sr(CKssi'i I, ( ANMNc AND I'i;i:si;k\ i \( ; 



Ji 


h 














Xo. lbs. 

home 

use 


-- 








1 
1 




Ko. lbs. 
sold fresh 








1 
1 

j 

i 




Glass 


0) 








1 
1 
1 


Si 

5 








1 




M — 










1 
1 


a 














ff 










1 
1 


- 


•i 

1 










a 

12 














a 


o 
d 

2: 














d 

;5 










1 




' d 














d 










1 : 




tn 

■73 

a 














c 


2 

as 
I) 










1 : 

• 





THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 315 

grocer whose rating is good should be able to arrange satisfactory 
means of payment with the shipper. In five years of doing 
business with the merchant the North Carolina Canning Clubs 
liave never to my knowledge lost a penny through nonpayment of 
bills. 

In trading with the housewife cash payments are preferable, 
as too much time is consumed in a second visit to collect for small 
orders. 

Records and Accounts. — Every canner should keep an ac- 
count of just what she spends in her yearly venture. A com- 
plicated system of bookkeeping is not necessary; but to deter- 
mine just what is cleared during the season and to be able to 
know whether the business pays, a strict record of what is paid 
out in money and time must be kept. The following things should 
be listed : cost of ploughing, fertilizer, seed, plants, time con- 
sumed in planting, cultivating, harvesting and canning, and the 
cost of sugar, cans, jars, labels, crates, etc. The cost of mar- 
keting must also be included. 

A record should also be kept of what is sold, the prices re- 
ceived, and when delivered. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe briefly your idea of business integrity. 

2. Wiiat) plan of marketing do you believe would be the most feasible in 

your community? Why? 

3. A fundamental demand of a commercial product is uniformity: give a 

brief explanation of each way in which packs should be uniform. 

4. In what ways may the label influence ease of marketing? 

5. Explain how prices are governed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. McKiMMON, Jane S., "Marketing the Canning Club Products," article 

in Country (lentlcman, issue June 3, 1916. Published by the Curtis 
Publishing Comi)any, Philadelphia, Pa. 

2. United States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service, 

"Canning Club Record Book," B-5I1, i. Published by the Office of 
Extension Work in the South, States Relations Service, Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



<iiAi"ri:i; xx 

TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 

The material contained in this v(tluiiic may be nsed as a text- 
hook in the liands of students in a course of canning and pre- 
serving given for high school, normal school, and college students. 
Here and there such courses are being given, and in many other 
institutions the subjects of canning and preserving are given at- 
tention. This book will also prove useful as.a reference volume iji 
connection with extension and other special courses, and in sum- 
mer school courses for study as to utilizing fruits and vegetables 
cultivated on the city vacant lots, high school training farms, and 
school gardens. 

Many schools and colleges are adding this line of practical 
work, in raising and canning fruits and vegetables, to their Home 
Economies courses. It had been found that the best results can 
be obtained where the productive side of the (piestion is considered 
first, and where raising the products precedes their utilization in 
canning. 

The subject of preservation of foods has been only barely 
touched upon in most of the Home Economics courses. Little 
time or study in schools has been given this very important phase 
of food conservation until very recently. Now the colleges of 
agriculture and colleges for women in nearly all of the states have 
included in their regular courses work in canning, or they give 
during the year a short course, which includes such instruction. 
Some of these courses are planned for Farmers' AVeek, Farmers" 
Institutes, and other special short courses. Sometimes courses 
are given in the state institutions for women and girls who have 
won the highest and best records in their state in home demonstra- 
tion work and canning clulis. While the principles presented 
should cover representative i)iiases of the subject, the practical 
316 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 317 

work done will naturally be determined by seasons. Brief or a 
more exhaustive study should be given, according to the age and 
maturity of the students. It is understood that more of the bac- 
teriology of canning will be given to advanced students. In 
planning courses the teacher should plan her work with refer- 
ence to 

1. Aim. 

2. Subject-matter. 

3. Methods. 

4. Equipment. 

5. Library. 

A SUMMER SHORT COURSE 

For a two-week summer short course the plan outlined below 
is suggested for the first year's work in canning. Necessary in- 
formation to carry on such a course may be gotten from the text. 

Lesson I. Lecture — Principles of canning. 

Lesson II. Canning tomatoes or berries in glass. 

Lesson III. Arranging necessary equipment for canning in tin. Canning 
tomatoes in tin. 

Lesson IV. Utilizing tomato by-products: (a) Tomato puree; (b) to- 
mato paste; (c) green tomato pickle; (d) tomato ketchup. 

Lesson V. Plain fruit canning in tin — either peaches, figs, or pears — 
giving recipe for putting up a by-product for each fruit 
used. 

Lesson VI. Fancy packing of fruits in glass for exhibit purposes. 

Lesson VII. Canning beans and peas in tin. 

Lesson VIII. Fancy packing of beans and carrots in glass for exhibit pur- 
poses. 

Lesson IX. Canning corn in tin; canning baby beets in glass. 

Lesson X. Canning sweet Spanish pimientos whole, in glass and in tin. 

Lesson XL Canning soup mixture in glass; packing of vegetable mace- 
doine in glass. 

Lesson XT I. Arranging an attractive exhibit of products canned. Instruc- 
tions on judging and scoring. Examination. 

The second year's course should include preserving, jelly mak- 
ing, and crystallizing of fruits, as given in the following outline. 
A longer course in a single season for more mature students might 
include both. 



'MS si'ft'Kssii L ( AwiNi; \\i» 1'i:i;si;k\ iN(; 

Ia'smoii I. I..itiir<- (M'lit'liil I'l iiici|,lcs of jii i-hiT\ in;;. 

l.i'SHdii II. rri'siTVi'tl TiiitiTiiiilnii riiicl or citnui iihIimi. iil-o Imttliti;,' 

frusli fruit jiiici's. 
Ix?88ori III. liiiishitij,' wutoniirloM litnl prt-scrvi-. Sturtiri;,' licrrv siirui). 
Ix'ssoii l\ . I'ri served i.eiulieH, li;(s, or pears, with reeipcs for liy-j)r<)(lufts. 
|)e;i(!i iriarmalailc, i\<r iiiarriialade, t;iii;;cre(l pear, and jams. 
Lesson \ . Makiii;; llie In products of tlie fruit clioseii for preserving. 

Ivosson \ I. .Making,' marmalades and conserves. fJrajie-fruit, ku!nf|uat, 

or oran^re niarnialade; fi;;. j)luin, or rliuharl) conserve. 
Lesson NIL I'ruit jiastea or Initters: ajjjde, apricot, lifj^, or pcacli. Drying 

fruits and vegetaiiies. 
Ix'sson \ IIL .Jelly niakiiifr. I?egin crystallizing' fruits. 
Lesson IX. Picklinj,'. JJrining vegetables. 
Lesson X. Curin;: of meats. (Ivecture.) ('aiuiin^r meat, fisli and uflicr 

sea food (under stoam pressure). 
Lesson XL Making sweet pickles. 
Lesson XII. Making relish, chutney, mangoes. 

Lesson XI IL Finisli crystallizing fruits and packing fruit pastes. 
Ix?sson XIV. Arrange an attractive exhibit of products preserved. In- 
structions on judging and scoring. 
Lesson X\'. Summary of work done. 

It is inip().s.sil)le to sug:g:est a course of study wliich miprht be 
adopted without clianges, since the value of sucli a course depends 
greatly upon the choice of suitable products, and those which the 
people Ix'ing taught most desire to know about. The locality and 
the season of the year will cause the selection of material to vary 
considerably in dilTerent sections. However, considerable luii- 
formity can exist in the instructions planned for an organization 
in a section or an entire state, depending upon a range of latitude 
and variation in climate. 

COUNTV SHORT CorHSKS 

A state-wide plan for all county short courses for cauniiig club 
girls has helped work out a fine scheme of standardizing the 
special club products made during the four years' program of 
work throughout the state. The following is part of the plans 
which have been outlined for use in sliort courses: 

First-year Canning Club Members. — First hour each day 
devoted to lecture on one of the general topics: Sanitation, Per- 
sonal Hygiene, Principles Underlying the Work. 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 319 

Two- to three-hour period daily for practical work in canning 
tomato products: salad tomatoes in thick sauce packed in glass, 
plain canned tomatoes in tin, tomato puree, tomato paste in tin 
and glass, green tomato pickle in glass, tomato ketchup in bottles, 
and soup mixture in glass. 

A part of the time during these short courses is devoted to 
other phases of the club work which are emphasized at different 
seasons of the year, such as gardening, poultry work, winter gar- 
dening, sewing, bread making, and cooking and serving of club 
products. 

Second-year Canning Club Members. — The second-year 
members spend the first hour in assembly hearing the general 
lecture. The practice period is devoted to work in canning and 
preserving the special products which they are growing on their 
one-tenth acre plots; soup mixture in tin, fancy packing of 
beans, peaches, or figs in glass, vegetable macedoine (band pack- 
ing) in glass, baby beets, okra, Dixie relish. 

Third-year Canning Club Members. — Dixie relish, canned 
pimientos, chutney, jelly, and preserves. 

Fourth-year Members. — {Canning Cluh, Home Demonstra- 
tion Cliih, and Ladies from Town.) 

Jellies, preserves, marmalades, jams, and conserves. Pickling 
(brining of vegetables). 

The short course outlined above is based upon the general 
plan of work which has been adopted in all the Southern States. 
It includes a program of work for four consecutive years. A 
description of this four-year program is given on page 302. In 
other sections, North and West, there are similar organizations of 
girls and women with programs which give gardening and can- 
ning work a large place. Such work provides for girls and young 
women of the farms a useful vocation, stimulating them to broader 
activities and more useful lives. From the standpoint of the indi- 



;{•.'() 



SI cci'.ssKi L cawim; and 1'i:i:si;i:\ i.\(; 



\i(lu;il, siirli wiiik ^--ivi's line ()|i|i(ii-t unity lor t|<'V('|ii|>iiii-iit (if sclt"- 
ffliiiiici", iiiit iat i\i'. iiiid skill in s|»cci;il lines. 'I'liis skill lias a 
(lirri-t (■(•oniMiiic \;ilni', hccaiisf llic ^Mi'ls |)nsscssin;_' it art- cnaltli'il 
to earn niniiry. I'.y 1 lir cdiipiTat ivc conniiunity clVoi't callfd forth 
liy tlii'Sf lines of wofk, fuial life is niadr more attractive for mh'Ii, 
women, and yonn^' | pie alike. 



An OuTi.iNKi) I'uocatwi oi WOuk i ok Giuls' Dkm<j.nsth.\tio.\ C'lihh in 

Oklahoma 
/. Cmming Cltth.s 

I'irst year f One-tenth aere tomatoes or iionie 

\ garden. 



A. One-tenth acre 
gardens: 



Second year 



Third year. 



B. \\'iiitcr Hardens 



f One-tenth acre (oiiiatoes and one other 
\ vegetable. 

f One- tenth acre tomatoes, two other 
vegetables or one-twentieth acre 
vegetables, one-twentieth acre per- 
ennials. 



f One-twentieth acre new perennials, 
one-twentieth acre perennials from 
third year or home garden. 

1. I'all gardens. 

2. Catch crops. 

3. Cover crops. 



(a) Standardization of all garden and orchard products | j,'^*^^ ' , 
(6) Economic preservation of all waste products on farm. 

(c) Exhibits at county and state contests held in the fall. 

(d) See outlined plan of Home Demonstration Work, page 321. 

//. PonUrij Clubs 

f 1. General utility purposes, 
(a) Selection of breeds for \2. Egg production. 

[3. Market. 
(6) Marketing of poultry and poultry products. 

(Breeding. 
Housing. 
Treatment of diseases. 
Grading. 

(d) I^'se of reports. 

(e) Exhibit / Eggs. 

\ Pure-bred birds from setting of eggs. 

(/) See outlined plan of Home Demonstration Work, page 321. 



TEACIUNU CANNING AND RKLATKD ACTIVITIES 321 

Ax OrTLTN'E Pi.Av OF TToMK Dhmonstuattox Wouk iok Wiimkx i\ 

( »K1.AI1UMA 

[ Firelt'ss cot)k('r and oil .sto\i's. 

, , , , ^. ... Klv-tiaps and sanitary aijpiiaiici's. 

]. l.ahor- and tinu-savin- d.-vn-os. ,^,j^^^.^^^! ,^^.^^^,^^ ^^,,^^;^^, [^_^^,^ ^.^,^j^,^ 

[ with rollers, running water, etc-. 
2. Economic production of wliolcsonu' food from all garden and poultiy club 
products. 

II. Sterile utensils. 
2. Care and use of milk. 
O 1) ii 1 • 11 1 • 

.". 1. utter making and clieese making. 
4. Marketing of dairy products. 
4. Sewing: 

[ Cap. 
ia) Making of club uniform < Apron. 

[ Towel and holder. 
(6) Selection of material for clothing. 
(c) ^faking of simple cotton dress. 

Begin with batters and end with yeast 

bread. 
Economic use of stale bread. 
Care of bread and use of wheat flour 

substitutes. 



5. Uread niakim; 



COTRSE OF STUDY IX FARMERS' BULLETINS FROM U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRI- 
CULTURE FOR WOMEN COUNTY AGENTS IN OKLAHOMA 

For February, March, and April 
Farmers* Bulletin No. 913, Killing Hogs and Curing Pork. 

Poultry ( State lesson sheets ) . 

Gardening (State lesson sheets). 
!)34 Vegetable Gardening in South. 
!)30 City and Suburban Garden. 
()42 Tomato Growing in the South. 
Sol House Flies and 734, Fly Traps and Their Operation. 

For May, June, and Jidy 
()34 (Year Book) Clean Water and How to Get it on tlie Farm. 
007 Farm Kitchen as a Workshop and 927, Home Conveniences. 
S7(i Farm Butter flaking and 850, INIaking Cottage Cheese on the Farm. 
375 Care of Food in the Home. 
444 Remedies and Preventives against Mos(iuitoes, 

For August, September, and October 
8S9 Backyard Poultry and 800, American Varieties of Chickens. 
044 JIanufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice. 
478 How to Prevent Typhoid Fever. 
270 ^Modern Conveniences for Farm Home. 
040 Selection of Household Equipment. 
132 Correlating Agriculture with Public School Subjects in the Southern 

States. Study one Text-ljook on Foods. 

21 



322 



SLICKSSI Th 1 ANMNt; AM) I'RKSKKN ING 



<; ai{|)|;mn<; and canmnc; in cii'iks 
Siicli nr<_Miii/;it ions as I'xtards of I'Miicat ion and Civic Asso- 
ciations lia\c comiiiclrd liardcninj; and caniiini^' in a iniinhcr of 
cities. In till' canning iiisl met ions concctcd with tlic vacant l(jt 
ganlciis, Iraiiiin;^' farm plots, and school f^ardciis in cities the 
I'niit and vcL-'ctalilcs slionid hr canned as llie\- inatnre. Soinetin»L*s 
a nearhy school hnildin;.'' which is iisiialiy closed diiiin{^ the suin- 
iiier months has avaihdtle a well-eciiiipped domestif science lal)ora- 
tory w liicli could he used to ^Tcat advantaj/e in this suininer work. 
If sucli a place is not ;ivailal)h', a shady spot near the !_Mrden 




Fio. 143. — A cultivated city vacant lot in Philadelphia. 



may lie .selcfted and here outdoor e(piipnient set uj) f(jr the can- 
inn>^ work. Oidy a limited inimlier of utensils are neeessary. 

Vacant Lot Gardening. — The vacant lot gardening in Phila- 
delpliia is ty[)ieal of what some of the cities are doing and of what 
all should do (Fig. 145). Many property owners in this city lend 
their land with the understanding that in case they wish to sell, 
build, or use the land the gardeners will release it on a six weeks' 
notice. The work is conducted under tlie auspices of the Pliiladel- 
phia Vacant Lot Cultivation Association. Several liundred fam- 
ilies are made happier and hrouglit to Ixttei- liealth every year 
because of tliis opportunity to get close to .Motlier Nature. Such 



TEAciiixn r.WNiNa and kelatkd activities 



323 




;?•.' I 



srccKssFL L I, A.\M.\(; AND i'i;i:si:it\iN(; 



a in-ivilt'jrc ciiaMt's many people to provide wliolesome food and 
iciitation Tor llieir raiiiilies diiriu'; the .suiiinier months. Olleii 




I'li;. 1 l.'i. — A CDoperativf neighborhood (.'ardeii in Pliiladtlphia, P 




,■{ffw^r■^';r^;^rT•>;^^^ly|l■■J>„.. 



Flu. 1-lG. — .V St. Loui.s ccmmunity canning kitchen. (.Courtesy of U. S. Depar- ■ t : 

of Agriculture.) 

a goodly supply of potatoes and other vegetables is grown and 
stored for winter use. At the same time the city is beautified by 
growing gardens on the vacant lots (Fig. 143). 



TEACHING CANNING AND KKLATEI) ACTIVITIES 



325 



What is not used in the homes or sold fresh might easily be 
canned, or dried, stored, and sold later or used during the winter 
months. 

School gardens (Fig. 144) should be large enough to produce 
a supply of vegetables for the home table, with a small surplus 
to sell or to can. In some country schools, gardens have been culti- 




FiG. 147. — A tomato plot in Geauga County, Ohio. 

vated by the children and the vegetables canned for use during 
the winter in hot school lunches. 

The training farm work in Cleveland, 1910 to 1913, may be 
cited to show what city school gardens will accomplish. There 
the children studied the canning and preserving of all vegetables 
grown in their gardens, these canning lessons being given in the 
Domestic Science Department of the Schools. 

One of the features of the work has been the exhibit of the 
garden products and canned goods (Figs. 148 and 149). All of 
the products exhil)ited were grown and put up by the children in 
the Willard School Farm (Fig. 150). 



•3'iG 



si'ccKssrrh canninc and i'i:kskuvi.n<; 




TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 32? 




f^Ofi .^^.rCT.?^^^^L CANXiXr; AM; i'KKSKKVIXO 




TEACHING CANNING AND KELATED ACTIVITIES 30,9 




Fig, 151. — Senior class at Harri.-^oiilmrtJ: Xornial Si-IkjoI, \'irt:uiia, cultivating 
and spraying their plants. 




Fic. l.")2. — Stukirii; and tying plant.-*. 



nnii 



si'crKssi I I. ( \.\\i\(; AM) riii;si:i;\ INC 



Af'ti'f till' |)liiiit iiiLT stMsdii. lii'l'di-c llic vcL'rt;il>lcs iiiatiiri'. llicrc 

is (ip|M)rt unit V ti> l»riii<r loi^ct Ih-i* tin- m ssjiry f(|iiipiii(Mit in a 

suitable plai-c. Tlic building' of li(»iin'iiia(lc caniicrs and fly-traps 
may be tauLiht as a part (»!" tlie pi-t-jtai-at ion lor outdoor eannint;. 

Tlio I'undaiiiental prineiplfs ul' cannintr should first be tautrlit 
throULrh the use of tlir inatci-ial most easilv eaiined. Sonic of tin- 




I 1' , 1 ••. — 1 ri/ (• winning short course pir!s pruning tomato plants. 

early berries and fruits are easier to can than the vegetables, 
and lend opportunity for practice before the products which are 
more dififieult to can come into l)earinff. 



CANNING IN niGHER IXSTITITIONS 

Normal Schools have already recognized the value of giving 
their students practical work of this nature so that later, as teach- 
ers, they may lie prepared to direct these activities among chil- 
dren successfully. Ill many institutions students have organized 
tliemselves into canning clubs which they have conducted for the 
purpose of learning how to carry on these organizations among 
cliildfcii. 

The accomj)anying series of illustrations gives an idea of what 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 



331 



was done at one of the state normal schools in Virginia (Fij^s. 
151, 152, 153, 154, and 155). A one-half acre scholarship plot 
was given to the senior class. They were to plant, spray, eulti- 




FlG. 15.5. — ."'tudonls' display of canning prodiict.s from the Srholarsliip Plot. 



vate, stake, and prune the tomato plants. The canning club girls 
who won the state short course scholarships from various counties 



XV! 



Sll ( KSSFl I, ( ANMNC AND I'ltKSKKN I NC 




KlG.15(). — Tomato plot cultivated by senior class at Hattiesburg .Normal School, Mi-.-i--i|. pi. 




TEAL'HIXG CANNING AND KEJ.ATKD ACTIVITIES 



333 



eariie to this school in the summer. The phit furnished oppor- 
tunity for practical instruction in the garden. When the stu- 
dents returned to school in the fall the garden was in bearing. 
The district agent in home demonstration work, who had her 
headquartei's in this school, gave many demonstrations to the 
senior students in ihe utilization of this vegetable in various 




m 



Fig. 15S. — (me of the training schook tor voluntary leaders in tiie coiupreliensive can- 
ning and drying campaign curried on in Nebraska in 1917. 2151) of these leaders were 
trained by the State College and cooperating institutions. 

ways. Plain canned tomatoes, whole salad tomatoes in thick 
sauce, tomato puree, tomato paste, tomato ketchup, and green to- 
mato pickles were the principal products made. The students be- 
came skilled in canning and gave demonstrations for the benefit 
of other members of the school. Some of these products w^ere 
used in the school dining hall and some were sold. The proceeds 
are to be turned each year into a permanent scholarship fund for 
canning club girls of the state. 

The trainiiig given in the state normal school has enabled 
teachers to give fine assistance to the county agent in organizing 
canning clubs (Fig. 156). Colleges are also giviixg courses in 
canning; a notable example is the State Industrial College at 
Denton, Texas, which has ])rovided a canning laboratory build- 
ing (Fig. 157). 

In the early summer two-dav training schools in canning were 
held for the instructors of the Nebraska State College and of the 



;;;m 



sri (KSSFIL CANMMi AND I'KKSIiKX I N( ; 



otlit'i* insliliitidiis iti the state wliich were (Mxijx'i'atiiij; in tlie loud 
nmscrval ion caiiipaiLTii i l^'i",'. l")''^,i. Siiiiilai' training: scIkioIs were 
tlii'ii held at sti'atct:ic puiiits in the state liy tln'se teaeliecs. Maeh 
of these si'hools was attench'd l»y twenty-live (U-h-irates from 
women's orLrani/ations in the neiirhl)orhoo(i. I^ai-h deleirate eame 
ph'dLied to lieconie a teaehei' in her own eomiiinnity. and to keep 
a reeoi'd of the nninliei- of pen|)l(' she tan^dit and the amonnt of 
foi»d canned oc di-ied. The vulnnteer leader- with tlie best record 
tan'jilt I'l'S people lieloi-e tile sc;iS(in closed. 

SI (i(a;sri;i) i.isr oi si i-i'i.n.s loit a small LAmiiiAKmy 
/Jn/.v/irv. eir. : 



1 Fail Kliapod .siiil< linisli 
'/. Dozi'ii l)nislies for test-tulies 

Choppers, Slirrifi, etc.: 

1 No. .3 food clioppcr 

1 Stcrliiij^r sliior 

Cutlery, etc. : 

2 Silvor-i)lat('(l dessert t<iiive9 

1 I\ul)l)or-tii)j)ed sink sliovel 
1/2 Dozen spoons, tea, heavy 

plated 

2 Spatulas, stool, nirkol- 

platod, fi-iiuli lilado 

Croel'prif, etc. : 

1 i)()/(Mi jilati's, dinnor. 0-iiicli, 
plain 



F.nnnirl Baihrs. Pnna. Citpfi, Troys, rtr. : 
1 1'ray, wliito onamcd, oval 
3 Bowls, white enamel, four- 
quart 
3 Pans, enaniollod. sauoe, Xo. 

24 
3 Pans, onanicllod, stow, 

Xesco six-quart 
n Pans, enamelled, milk, 

round, six-quart 

1 Pan, dish, tin, larpe size 

1/, Dozen cups, enamelled 



'^ Dozen brushes for small cyl- 
inders 
Yn Dozen hrushes, lirislle 

1 Hand liottlo (•ai)ping ma- 
chine 
1 Hand fruit press 

1 Suro-cut can o])oncr 
1/2 Dozen spoons, table, heavy 

plated (set of (i) 
Ys Dozen forks, table, heavy 

plated (set of 0) 
% Dozen knives, paring, three- 
inch blade 

1 Dozen dishes, side, ])lain 
white 
14 Dozen crocks, glazed stone, 
one-gallon, with covers 

1 Cup, tin, one-quart 
1 Tureen, oval, enamollcd. 
thirtc^on-q\iart (u.sed for 
hot -water bath proces- 
sor) 
V2 Dozen pans, oiiainollcd, 

milk. (i\a1 
i/o Dozen bowls. enamellod. 

one-tpiart 
Ys Dozen bowls, enamelled, 
two-quart 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 



335 



Funnels, Jar Fillers, etc.: 

1 Patent funnel, pint size, j 

copper, nickel lined 

Glass Containeis and Measures: 

1 Gross No. 12 champagne j 

shaped catsup bottles, 
roll top and crimp cap 4 

3 Glass measuring cups, V2 
pint, graduated 
100 Processing clamps 4 

l^ Dozen graduates, glass, 

cone sliape, eight-ounce 2 

14 Dozen cups, feeding, glass 

2 Dozen glasses, jelly 

1 Dozen jars, preserve, 6 

jNIason's standard one- 
pint 1 

1 Dozen jars, Mason's Atlas 
one-quart, wide mouth 

Miscellaneous : 

2Y2 Yards oilcloth, white 5 

6 Yards denim, upholsterer's, 1 

dark blue 
10 Yards cheesecloth, bleached, 1 

36 inches wide 

{Scientific Apparatus, Scales, and Supplies: 

1 Scales, double beam, porce- 2 

lain plate, 10-inch square, 
with brass scoop 

2 Confectioner's thermom- 

eters, range 80 degrees 2 

to 350 degrees F. 

3 Chemical thermometers, 

scale range 1 10 degrees C. 

3 Chemical thermometers, 2 

scale range 230 degrees F. 
14 Dozen salt per cent, scale, 1 

per cent, to 100 per cent. 

1 Sugar hydrometer. Balling 1 

'scale degree to 70 de- 1 

grees, 14 degree gradua- 
tion 



Aluminum jar filler 



Dozen jars. Mason's Atlas 
one-pint, wide mouth 

Dozen No. r)004 10-ounce 
vase-shape jar, with her- 
metic cap 

Dozen No. 5042 12-ounce 
glass top, screw rim 

Dozen No. 209 lO-ounce 
tumbler-shape jar, witli 
hermetic cap 

Dozen No. 184 4-ounce jar, 
with hermetic cap 

Gross thick red or gray 
rubber jar rings 



Yards flannel, white 
Dozen yards towelling, 17- 
inch linen 
Dozen rolls paper hand 
towelling 



Sugar hydrometers, Brix 
scale, range degree to 
30 degrees, graduated V2 
degree 

Sugar hydrometers, Brix 
scale, range 30 degrees to 
60 degrees, graduated l^ 
degree 

250 c.e. cylinders, for float- 
ing spindles 

Small steam pressure 
processor 

Smkll " water-seal " canner 

Wasli boiler to be used for 
a " hot-water " canner 



:vM\ 



sic ( KssiM I, ( .\\MN(i AM) J'ki:si;kvin(; 



Sifi'is, Slrainns, Ladles, etc.: 
1 Siinitiny sink liaski't 
1 No. SO pnii'i' h'u'Vo 

1 (>li|<iii^' wire draining,' tray 

fur |irnccssill;r holier 

2 .Miiiiiimim hidh'.s, oval howl 

\<yv |Hiuriii;r. iiook on 
iiiiddlf of handle 
Woollen Ware, etc.: 

1 I'lat wooden s|)oons 

1 Small potato inaslirr for 

cnisliiiif,' f I'll its 
1 .Far, slop, pai)ic'r-]iiac'lio 
'/, l)«)/c?i i-iiic packinu' paddli-; 

Tlio al)ove list is intended for experimental work; for in 
dividual elass work the list would need to l)e supplemented. ( ";in 
nini:- instruction i-an he o-iveu in an oi'dinaiy eookiu).:- laliorat(ir\- 



2 I'crforati'd ahiniiniiMi skim 

mi-rs 
1 !joj:«' ainminiim strainer 
1 Wire frying; ha>kc't with hail 

for Idamliin;; vegetuhics 
I l'iir«'c sieve 

1 (ohmder 

1^ Dozen eane syrup paddles 

2 Wooden paddle.s for testin;? 
jelly 

2 Jellv racks 




Fio. lo9. — .\ North Carolina exhibit of first-year products. 



TEACHlNi; TANNINei AND llKI.ATKl) ACTIVITJKS 



Ono does not neod a special room, althonoli, as the work de- 
velops, a room set aside tis "A Canning Laboratory" will tend 
to dignify the worlc and simplify the task of the instructor. A 
lecture room with a raised platform where demonstrations and 
lantern slide lectures could be given for the benefit of all students 
would be most useful. A list of catalogues and samples from 
connnercial firms should be secured and students should famil- 
iarize themselves with the sources of supplies (see Appendix, 
p. 373). 

Exhibits. — Numerous benefits may be derived from exhibiting 
the finished products of canning and preserving work in schools 




F^G. 160. — A parish exhibit in Louisiana. 



22 



n:3s 



srccKssFri. canninc and I'i;i:si;i;\ inc 



;ill(l I'lulis. A "li;il\i'>t liiiliir" ill t llr scliiMil, ;i cuiiiiiillllity I'jiii-. a 
comity »ii- stale lair attrarts attfiilion to what lias lircii ai-cuni- 
|»iislu'(l and interests a greater niiiiiher ol' peojile. One <»l" the 
ni<»sl imiiortaiit I'esnlts ol" the exhiliit is its use as a means ol" 
estalilishiiiL; stamlarils (if i|iialily. It iiii|ii-esses fureiiily the ^'reat 
iieeessily Inr unil'onii |n-i»(luets. I'nilorni eontainers Tor the 
prndiiels iiintrnvo tlie ai)i>earanee ol" the whole exhihit (Fij^s. 159 
and liiO). 

J-'Juiire 1<)1 shows a niiiiiatiire exiiihit sULrt-'ested as a plan for 



liftill 



1 




Fli;. 101. — A niiniaturo rxliibit succpstcd .'.s n pl:in for ;i fair. 

a state fair booth. Each small pyramid, whieli is covered with 
dark green, is to represent the separate county or parish exhibit. 
The jars for each stand are nsnally selected from the best ones 
sliowii at the community or county fairs, and should represent 
the best work done in lliat county. The larger frame in the 
center is for special ])r<)(lucts which have been entered for indi- 
vidual awards. 

This plan of arranuvment by counties simplifies judging and 
makes possible a com])arison of work done by the different conn- 
ties at a glance. Standardized special products from the various 
counties are assembled together, and the color scheme of the whole 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 



339 




Fig. 162. — A carefully planned exhibit. 

•display is very effective. The center frame is supposed to repre- 
sent a glass jar in shape. It is painted white, with a gilt band 
painted around the top to represent a lacquered jar cap. The 
white wooden frame is lined inside with white cheesecloth, and 
if a strong light is placed behind this cloth in the center it will 
shine through the clear liquid in the jars and make the products 
show" up brighter and to much better advantage. This is an espe- 



:mu 



SI.TCKSSFII, CWXix,, \M, |'|;|.:^i.:|;x|^y: 




TKACHIXU CANNING AND KKLATKI) ACTIVITIES 34I 

cially fine arrangenieiit to show off ett'eetively clear jellies, pre- 
serves, marmalades, and fruit juices. By placing- products of one 
kind only on each shelf all around the frame an effective combi- 
nation of l)ands of color can be obtained. 

When exhibits are carefully planned and arranged it affords 
great pleasure to all who see them, and renders much easier the 
work of those who do the judging and place the blue ribbons 
(Fig. 162). 




Fig. IGi. — Judging canned tomatoes and beans. 

Judging the exhibits, if well performed, serves as a means of 
establishing standards of quality that make for excellence. It 
emphasizes the importance of careful work, and of uniform pack- 
ing in standard containers and packages. 

Score Cards. — Such a card lists all the essential characteris- 
tics of a certain kind of product and assigns percentage numbers 
on a scale of a hundred; the more important items are given 
larger numbers, the less important items are given smaller num- 
bers, and the sum of the numbers is made 100. A product is ex- 
amined and compared by the judge with an ideal or perfect 
product; the ideal product would be scored 100; the product 
being judged will be discredited one or more points under the 
various items, and the score allowed it will be the sum of these 
discredits taken from the perfect score of 100 (Fig. 164). 

The use of the score card has come to be common in judging 
such materials, and such cards help greatly to emphasize the 
essential points. 



312 



SI (('KSSITI, <A\MN(; AM) I'ltKSKItVl \< ; 



(iKMIt.M. S< illti; < Aid) I Hit < a.NM:I> IUIITH AM> VKIiKTAIII.KS 
A |i|ii';il iilirc ( iiliir 15 

( Ifiii iii'KH 10 -5 

'rt-xliir.' 1(1 

Flavor H) 

riiiforinity IJiiiciu'ss 10 

A|i|)rn|)riatc' size o IH 

I'ark ( :iniiii;:<iii<iit in >:Iass or weight in tin) l.'i 

( iinlaiiicr Lalirl 5 

Xcaliii'-s 5 

\|il)r(i|iri:itc paikagf. . 5 15 



'Jofal 



lOU 




Fig. 105. — This cow has prove< 



prize for this Tennessee girl. 



Every ono who sees sin-li an cxliil)!! and lioars tlio public 
jiulyiiiL;" will so away with an intdliiicnt ai)i>r('ciali()n of the 
('xliil)it and he stimulated with a urcatei- dcsii-c I'di- inipi-ovtMuent 
tlirou<ili hctler nicthods of work. 

Somewhat dilTei'eiit seoi-cs arc used t'or jud.uiu.u- jelly, pre- 
serves, and relishes, and llif follow in<j arc (ndy sngfrestive scores 
which will aid the judues and exhibitors hy calliuii- altcjition to 
the essential points that make for hifi:h standards: 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 343 





^HHkAi. I-W iV^ ■ ' N 







Fiu. 106. — A gardening set consisting ui ^ :.iu;u..ii^ pa,d and au upiJU 1 r ijuls. 
Described ou page 289. 



jll srccKssiTi^ canmm; and i'i;i:si;i;\ in(; 

Scinr ('aid fur ,h Hy : 

A|p|ii aiMiici' Cultir 10 

('h'uriU'SH 10 

Cry.stiiU (hifk of) . ."> 2.'. 

CoiiwistiMuy 40 

Flavor 20 

C'oritaiiKT Lnlu'l .1 

Ni'iitnc^^s .'> 

Appriipi iiitc size . .") 15 

Total 100 

Tho jiroiiouiK't'd yet natural color of the fruit is most dcsir- 
;ililr. Xiitural fruit flavors and colors are much more artistic 
than artiiicially colored and flavored fancy .jellies. Clear, spar- 
kling, transparent jelly with no signs of crj^stallization make the 
product attractive. The texture is tender and cuts easily. It 
breaks with distinct cleavage, and the angles retain shape. The 
glasses should he unifonn in shape and of appropriate size, 
practical for use in the average home. Tlie clean covers should 
fit tightly, and a small, neat label .should be properly placed. 

Score Card for Preserves . • 

Fruit ... .Appearance (color and flearnes.'^) 10 

I'niforinity of pieces 10 

Pack (arranjrenient I 10 

Flavor 1.1 

Texture 10 

Container .■> dO 

Svnip.. . .Clearness and color 10 

Flavor 1.') 

Consistency 10 

rropiirtiim nf juic" .■> 40 

Total ](»() 

The preserved i)roduct should retain as nearly as po.ssible 
original shape, color, and flavor of the fresh fniit. Fniit flavors 
are often destroyed by use of too much .sugar. The pieces 
should be plump and lirm, yet tender and transparent, of uni- 
form size and arranged in llu' jar with reference to symmetry 
and best use of the space wilhin tlie container. Aliout one- 
fourth as nnich synip as fi-uit is a fair ju-opoi-tion in a jar. 



TEACniXC; tAXXIXG AXD RELATED ACTIVITIES 345 




Fig. 167. — Municipal kitchen established in connection with municipal market. 
Salt Lake City, Utah. 




Fic. 108 — Municipal market, S.alt Lake City, Utah, 1917 



;{|,; SICCKSSKI I, ( ANMNfi AM) I'lIliSliltV I NC 

.s'co/c ('mil jar h'rlisln s : 

(iitii-nil Hp|n'aniiiic (((ilnr and clcariu'SK) 15 

I'liuiff and [nopniliuii of iiiatriialH 10 

Size and uniforniity <if pii'CH'H l.'i 

Attrartivcni'ss of pack, j.'arniHli, ctf 10 

Klavor '!') 

'rcxtiiri' of MiaUrial liO 

ContitiiHT 5 

Tnlal 100 

'I'lic frrsli, crisp lixtuiT is \isii;illy |ii'ctri;ilili' in i-rlislics. 
Pieces should be siiuill, hut ol" uiHlonii size; attractive paekiii}^ 
and i>hi('iu«^ the tianiisii should Ix; considered. T'siially for 
relislios a narrow stri]) of sweet red pepper, a small whole hot 
pepper, and a snip of some spice are placed on each seam of the 
jar. The label is placed midway between these narrow strips and 
one-fourth inch from the bottom of the jar. 

Suggestions for Judging. — For judginf? vefretable and fniit 
pickles the {jencral score card may be used. Those who exhibit 
should be familial' witli tlie score cards and know what points 
will be considered in judjzinpr and understand why products do 
oi- do not win the blue riblM)ns. When the premium or hiprhest 
award is not ol)tained the persons competin<^ for it should know 
how the\' can improve. 

Prizes. — The awardinjr of prizes should be most carefully 
planned, since more harm than good may be done if awards are 
not faii'ly made. ()j)cn comjx'tition olTers stimulus to many, and 
large num])ers strive to attain the mark of the goal. Moiii'y 
prizes are not always advisable rewards to olTer, unless in the 
form of bank deposits. Such deposits often establish a basis for 
the l)egiiuiing of a savings account. Prizes to be given in city 
and country are naturally of different types (Pig. Ki;*)*. 

Appi'opriatc |)fizcs will tend h) <'reate a gi'eater intei'est in 
country life. .Many such |)rizes have beiMi the starting point for 
much imi)rovement and develo])ment about the home, esj)eeiall'y 
where tile prize conliniics to grow and ])roves a good investment 
for the time si)ent on it. Funds from jirizes, and especially, of 
course, from the sale of garden and canned jiroduets. have made 
possible further- education for many Canning Club girls. 



TEACHING CANNING AND RKLATKD ACTIVITIKS 347 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Ckeswell, Mary E., Georgia State College of Agriculture, "Girls' and 

Boys' Club Work — A Manual for Rural Teachers," Bulletin 101, 
February, lOlfi. Published by the State College of Agriculture, 
Atiiens, Ga. 

2. CiiKisTiE, Geo. I., " Educational Contests in Agriculture and Home Eco- 

nomics," Farmers' Bulletin No. 255, Office of Experiment Station, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

3. DowDCE, Miss Lois, and Wood, Mrs. Bessie Stanley, Georgia State 

College of Agriculture, " Girls' Club Work in Georgia," 1910. Pub- 
lished by the State College of Agriculture, Athens, Ga. 

4. Lippincott's Farm Manuals, 1914. Published by the J. B. Lippincott 

Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 

5. McKimmon, Jane S., " Marketing the Canning Club Products," article 

in the Vountrii (lentlenuni, issued June 3, 1910. Published l)y the 
Curtis Publishing Company, Piiiladelphia, Pa. 
G. Norton, J. B. J., " Exiiibiting, Classifying, and Judging Homemade 
Products," Hayettsville, ISId. 25 cents. 

7. Reese, Madge J., "Judging Household Exhibits," September, 191(). 

Published by the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. 

8. Tracy, W. W., Sr., " Saving Vegetable Seeds for the Home and Market 

Garden," 1917, Farmers' Bulletin No. 884, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

9. United States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service, 

Office of Extension Work in the South, B-511-i, "Canning Club 
Record Book." Published by the Office of Extension Work in the 
South, States Relations Service, Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

10. United States Department of Agriculture, A-82, " Canning Club and 

Home Demonstration Work " ( Organization Circular ) . Published 
by the Office of Extension Work in the South, States Relations Ser- 
vice, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

11. United States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service. 

bulletins published by the Office of Investigations on Farmers' Insti- 
tutes and Movable Schools. Published by the States Relations 
Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

12. Yearly Reports, Home Gardening Association, Sixth and St. (lair 

Streets, Cleveland, Ohio. 

13. Yearly Reports, Philadelphia Vacant Lot Cultivation Association, 2211 

Land Title Building, Philadelphia, Pa. 

14. Hall, Bolton, " Three Acres and Liberty," Published by Macmillan 

Company, New York City, N. Y. 



(•ii.\i'Ti:i; xxi 

CANNING MEATS AND SKA FOODS 

Willi tile iircalci- rlliciciicy in cjiiiiiiiiLT tliat many nf uiir liuinc 
iiiakiTs have aci|iiifc(|, it is lint natural that tliry also should like 
to attempt meat caiiniMn'. J^'oi- many a home in tiit- ('(iuiitr}' this 
seems to !>(• the only means hy which at all times a sui)i)ly of meat 
ran lie a \ai la hie wit In Hit ha \i nu' to resoct to t he use oj' enreil meats 
oi- having- \n Imy rcom the markets of the iiearl)\' towns, which 
ol'teii is (lil'liciilt and iiiidesiralile on the hot summer days. 

'I'lic scarcity of meat under i»i'esent condilions makes it neeos- 
sary to use what is hutehei'od on the fanu to the ^i-eatest advau- 
taue. This may he done l)y eaiiiiine- all parts of the meat. ev(Mi 
the hones and sinews heinu' utilized in makiiiLi' soup stock, which is 
canned for futui'e meals. The value of the hy-pi-oduets derived 
fi'om different parts of the carcass is often overlooked and this 
results in much waste. 

It is of vital importance that the principles of sterilization he 
mastered hefore attemptine' to can meat. 

Prevention of Spoilage. — Ivcfei-rini;' to the description of ]iac- 
tei-ial action on foods (Chapter II). it nnist he emphasized that it 
is imperative to nse a one-period ])rocessin,e- with a tempei-a- 
ture of not less than "Jod degrees of moi.st steam heat in order 
to sterilize canned meats sufficiently. Many varieties of hacteria 
feed on protein food. Wlien the protein is hroken up durinpr the 
process of decoinposil ion many sulisfances ai'c formed, of which 
some (ptomaines) are danuvrous to health. Othin* hactei-ia pro- 
duce hy their action cei'tain to.xins or ]ioisonous suhstances that 
may hrinp: disease or death to nmn. Tt is therefore of the utmost 
importance in the cannint:- of meats to ohserve ahsolute cleanliness 
in the handling- of the meat and to use only such pi-oducts for 
cannin<r as are known to he fi-om healthy animals, which are 
l)utchei"ed and ]>re|)ared in a sanitary manner. All the hacteria 
that are dan<,^erous to man and that cause spoilage are killed 
348 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 3]f) 

even in the spore stage when subjected to a temperature of 
250"" moist heat, which is directly applied for a period of fifteen 
minutes. After the cans are hermetically sealed it is then 
necessary to subject them to such a temperature for a period 
long enough to insure that every part of the product in the 
can has been subjected to this temperature for the period given. 
This means, of course, sterilization for a longer period than that 
just mentioned. 

Necessary Equipment. — For the successful canning of meat 
and sea food it will be necessary to use a steam-pressure canner 
of the type previously described (Chapter VII). Besides the 
canner a soldering outfit (Chapter IV) is necessary. Large 
utensils, in the shape of dish pans, roasting pans, kettles, etc., 
will be needed in order to handle the meat quickly and efficiently. 

Containers. — All shell fish and crustaceans should be packed 
in inside-lacquered tins. When vinegar or lemon juice has been 
used in preparation of meats for canning, this type container 
should also be used. Other meat products may be packed in 
plain tin cans. The No. 2 cans are large enough when canning 
meat in the home. Where there is a large family No. 3 cans 
may be used for certain products. Glass containers are not 
as desirable to use on account of the danger of breakage and 
the difficulty of obtaining first-class rubber ring's. Rubber rings 
deteriorate very quickly in a hot and moist climate. The meat 
will spoil if the least crack in the rubber ring permits the access 
of air to the contents of the jar. 

The Selection of Fish and Meats. — The canning of sea food 
should not be attempted unless the fish are absolutely fresh, 
because all kinds of fish and sea food spoil cpiickly. All meats 
for home canning must be from healthy animals or fowls and 
in first-class condition. They should be handled with care before 
butchering, in order not to bruise the meat and thereby cause 
formation of blood clots. Detailed directions for butchering 
and cutting up of meats are given in Chapter XVI, and are 
e(|ua]]y applicalile where the meat is to be canned. 

Preparation of Meat for Canning (Figs. 160 and 170). — All 
meat should be made ready for canning just as it would be pre- 



•6W 



SUCCESS I'LL CANNlNt; AM) I'ltKSKUN 1N(; 



pared for scrviii'j. cxccj)! it is not iipcrssary fo (•oiitiiiiic cookiiif; 
iliilil \hr imat is nitiri'ly tctul r. as tlir i-aiiiiiiiu' process will 
tiiiisli llic cdukiiii:. Ill ordrr t(» presci-vr tin- llavur dl" tlir li'tmc 

(•iMil<ili<_f till' meals slinuld lie 
i-oasled, Itroili-d (»r stewed, 
and siasdiied before eaii- 
niii'j-. All parts of tlie ani- 
mal lllllsl lie Utili/rd. Tllf 

hams (ir rounds can he used 
for roast ; the hiin (^siHoin 
and ten(h'rloin) <-an hi' used 
I'or fdast or steak : the shoul- 
der can he used for I'oast 
or ill other meat preparations. 
Part of tlif neck and flank for 
(•lieajier cuts of meat) can be 
iililized for Iluiifrarian jron- 
lash or stews, or ground up 
for sausau-e meat or Ilam- 
l)iir<ror steak. The head can 
he utilized for soup stock. 
The head of a youn<r ealf can 
he used for moek turtle stew 
or soup; of a liofr. for liead 
cheese. The brains can be 
soaked in water to remove the 
blond, then jiarboiled and 
canned. Sweet breads may 
be blaneh(>d and canned jilain 
e dishes and canned, flic kid- 
neys should be soaked in water, sjdit o]~»en and fried or made into 
kidney stew before canning. The liver can he sliced and fried 
^^^th onions or made into liver saiisagre or palatal)le liver paste. 
The lunps of a ho<r can be used for lunfr sausasre or certain stews. 
The feet can be cleaned, the hoofs removed, and used in the 
preparation of gelatin. All the bones cut out of the meat, both 
raw bones and those removed from the roasts or steaks, can be 




Fig. 100. — The desirable temperature for 
cooling meat is 34° to 40° Fahrenheit. 

or bo prepared in various; palatal 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 



351 



utilized in the making of sonp stock. Cereals combined with 
meat in the making of sausage, potted meats, etc., increase the 
amount of the finished product, improve the texture, and are 
reconnnended. 

Canning. — All meats, after preparation and cooking, as out- 
lined above, should be cut in pieces that will pass through the 
can opening. Pack the meat while still warm into hot sterilized 




Fig. 170. — A pork should not be cut up until it is thoroughly cooled. 

cans and fill the space between the pieces of meat with a boiling 
hot liquid made by adding boiling water to the pan grease which 
was left after the frying or roasting. No pieces of meat should 
touch the top of the can, and the liquid should be added to 
within half an inch from the top of the can. 

Sealing, Exhausting, and Processing. — The sealing is done 
immediately after filling the can (see page 64). Clean the top 
of the can and remove all trace of gi*ease to obtain a perfect 
seal. In case the meat has cooled before filling the cans or before 
the sealing is accomplished, the cans must be exhausted, in the 
same way as vegetable products are exhausted, for a period of 



.l.-o SI ( (IISMII. ( AWINC \M) l*l;i;s|.l;\ |.\(; 

I'iniii li\(' to till iiiiiiiiics, tlirri ti|»|MM| iiiiiiif(|i;itoly iincl put in 
llir pruccssiiii: rctnrt. (As siati'd, fxli.iiist iiiir is iidt iifci'ssary 
ulicii l°(Mi(ls arc put l)()iliii<; hot into tiic ciiiis and sralcd ininx-di- 
atcly, as the .strani risiii'j- from the liot li(piid will clVectualiy 
dii\»' (lilt the excess (»!' aif. Tile pi'of'ossin}; is done in a steam- 
pi-cssurc <-aiiiiei- l(ir the periods L;i\eM in the dilTcrcnt rc<-ipcsj 

KKCII'ES 

i'x'j'oi'c iisiiiLi' the l'(ilh>\vinL;- recipes be sure lliat iiotliin^' hut 
alisoliitely I'rcsli meat, which lias heeii handled in a sanitary 
manner, is canned. 

AVhen hutcheriii<i' on the i'anii, the meat is ready to pi-epare 
i'oi" eantiiiiL;' as soon as no animal heat remains and the meat is 
cold. The meat can be ])repared for canning aceordni.tr to the 
recijx's L;iven or may Ix^ seasoned aecordinor to any individual 
desire, but the time t'oi- processin«r under steam pressure must 
be followed. 

Roast Meat. — Selei't the jiieee of meat wanted for roast, t!"im 
and wijie with a clean, damp cloth. Heat .some grease in a roast- 
inu' pan. Tut in tiu' meat, sear <|uiekly and turn until sides are 
seared lo i)re\eiit the lo.ss of meat juice during cookinj;. As soon 
as well .seai'cd, spi-inkic with salt and pepper to taste. Add some 
boilinir water to the ti:rease in the roastinir pan. Baste frefpiently. 
Turn the meat fi'om time to time and roast so it is nicely browned. 
Cook uiilil meat is done (it should not be I'ed in the eentre) 
without cookin<i: it entirely tender. Slice and pack into cans to 
within one-half inch from top of can. Add boilinir water to the 
i:ravv in the i-oastine pan and pour over the meat until it is 
covei'ed. Leave at least one-fourth inch space belween gravy and 
top of can. 

The above fifeneral i'eci])e may lie Si-asoni'd to suit the individual 
taste, and roast may be larded oi- 1i-immed with s|)iMLrs wf ])ai'sley, 
cloves, etc., accordiufy to desire. 

For a Beef Roast weiirhinu- S to 10 pounds, use 2 to '■] table- 
spoons of fjrease, 1 to 2 tablespoons of salt (accordinir to taste), 
y^ to 1 teaspoon of pepper (to taste), and U. to 1 cup of boilin«r 
water. Baste frecpiently. 

For Pork Roast. — Season as foi* beef. If ham is used and 
skin is left on, cut with point fd' knife just thi-ouirh skin, so as 



( AXMNCi MKATy AND SKA FOODS 



353 



to dice skin, and trim with o.loves and little tufts of parsley (if 
desired). Add two small turnips to roasting- pan. Leave skin 
side up (do not turn), baste frequently and cook until skin is 
nicely browned and crisp. 

For Roast Ham. — Where skin and fa^ are removed before 
roasting:, lard with narrow strips of larding- pork alternating with 
rows of little tufts of parsley. Add one small turuip and .1 




Fig. 171. — Hams reauy to roast. 

small root of celeriae, a few cloves and five or six whole pepper- 
corns to roasting pan. Meat may be i-ubbed with clove of garlic 
if desired. Season as for beef roast. Baste frequently (Fig. 171). 

For Roast Veal. — Lard nicely and trim with parsley. Use 
seasoning as for beef roast, add a few carrots and one small onion 
to roasting pan. 

For Roast Mutton, Lamb or Kid. — Trim in rows with small 
tufts of parsley, season as for liecf, add a few carrots to roasting 
pan. 

Processing All Roasts. — For all kinds of roast : Cap (exhaust 
5 minutes ii' meat and gravy have cooled; if cold, exhaust 10 
23 



3r)4 srccKssKii. (•.\NM\(; AM) ri:i;si;i:\ i\(; 

iiiiniitcs ; if hot. r\li;iiist iii'_r IS not iifct'ssui'y j, lij) and iiroecss 
ill sti;iiii-|irc.ssiiic (•.iiiiirr as t'lillows: 

Nil. I i;in<. Ill iniiiiitfs at 'I'>i)^' l*"iiliifiiliiMl . nr 1 ."> |i(iiinils «if >-tciiiii |ir("'<Mure. 
Nu. \1 ciiii-.. I") til .'id iiiinuti's lit :!.">(»" I'liliri'iilnit. <ir l.'i |miiiiii1« of stfiiiii 

IMfS>UH'. 

No. .■( call-. .">.■) lo 111! iiiiiiuti- at 2.'>(l' l-'aliri'iiljcit. or l.'i i"Hiii(|^ of -ti-am 

Idcssurt'. 

In rase iiirat is Tat. litiir dt' iinircssiiiL'' iiiiist tic iu'oIumltimI 10 
iiiiiiiitcs. 

Meat Loaf (Boiled Meat Scraps). — Isf meat sciajis. hoil 
and It't codk, run through iiirat LTcinder Iwicr and mix t lidnniLdily 
with tile inuft'dit'iits nicntioncd lirlow I'or cacli Ti pmmds of 
(•li<i|)p('d meal. The meat Sfi'aps left on llif IkiUcs wlirii ciittinj; 
up an animal tor canninu:, and boiled witli the hones tor soup 
stock, may tie removed from the liones after the soup sto<'k i^. 
made and utilized aceordiiio' lo this recipe. 

') tahlospoons of bread crunil)a 2 to .*] liay loaves Iimkcii ii|i liinly 

4 or ;") teas|)0(>ii.s of salt (or salt or powdered 

to taste) - teasj)oon.s crushed celery seed 

IY2 to 2 teas])()ons pepper iiiiioii juice or finely ciiopped onion 

3 teaspoons poultry .seasoning or may be added to ta-te 

safije 2 eji^s beaten tojjetiiei'. or 

1 teaspoon cloves 1 packajre of <,elatine dissolscd in 

14 teaspoon allspice a little cold water 

!(. to 1 teaspoon thyme 1 or 2 cups soup stock, accorilincr 

to dryness of meat 

]\Ii\ thnroiitihly and heat, fill while liot into \o. 1 tlat or Xo. '2 
cans to within one-half inch of top of can. cap. exhaust ."> minutes, 
tip and process: 

No. 1 flat cans. 10 minutes at 'l')0° Falirenlwit, or 1.") ixmnds of steam 

pressure. 
No. 2 cans. .'")0 nijniites at 250° Fahrenheit. <)r ]."> pounds of steam pressure. 

Corned Beef. — Prepare corned beef as per recipe priven in 
Chapter XVI. When ready to can, place meat in a kettle and 
cover with cold water. Brinir slowly to a boil and simmer for 
one hour. Remove nieat and cut in pieces that can pa.ss throngh 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 355 

can openini2:s. Return soup or litjuid in which the meat was 
boiled to fire and season with bay leaves, cloves and nutmeg to 
taste. Pack meat in cans and cover with the seasoned soup to 
which some gelatine dissolved in cold water has been added. 
Cap, exhaust 5 minutes if cooled, tip and process: 

No. 2 eans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

No. 2 cans may also be processed for 1% hours at 235° Fahrenheit, or 

8 pounds of steam pressure. 

Hungarian Goulash. — 

.1 pounds of meat ( Beef, Veal, or 1 to 2 bay leaves 

Heart of Pork may be used) 6 whole cloves 

2 ounces butter or any good fat 6 peppercorns 

2 onions (medium size) chopped 1 blade mace 

fine 1 pinch of thyme 

1 carrot (medium size) finely sliced 1 tablespoon finely chopped parsley 

1 stalk celery cut in small pieces Salt and pepper to taste 

1 pint tomatoes (canned or fresh Paprika to taste 

tomatoes) A little flour 

Cut the meat into one-inch squares and sprinkle with flour 
which has been seasoned with salt and pepper. ]\Ielt the fat 
in a frying pan, add the chopped onions, carrot, and celery 
when fat is hot and brown lightly; add the meat and brown, 
while stirring frequently with a spoon to keep from scorch- 
ing. When nicely browned empty into a stewpan and add 
bay leaves, cloves, peppercorns, mace and thyme tied up in a 
little bag of cheesecloth, also tomatoes or tomato puree. Cover 
with water or soup stock and simmer for 45 minutes (for 2 hours 
if it is to be served at once and not canned). Remove the bag 
of spices, and season by adding salt, pepper, and paprika to taste. 
Soy or Worcester sauce may be added in small quantity if 
desired. Add the parsley. Fill hot in cans, cap, tip, and process : 

No. 1 flat cans, 35 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds pressure. 
No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 2.50° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds pressure. 

Serve with mashed potatoes garnished with chopped cucum- 
bers or pickles. 



;j-^; SlCCKsM I 1, (ANM.NC AM) I'KKSKKN INCJ 

III niakiii<r froulasli the dicaprr cuts of meat may l)o used. 
II' the (linVnMit infrrcdiciits in this i-ccipc arc not at hand a ;:ood 
^"•oulash can he made \>y iisinir meat. I'al, unions, tomatoes, tlour, 
salt and pcppci-. and leaving' out the balance of tiie iiifrrcdiciits. 

(lonlash may also he nnnlc from meat scraps. 

I ■lll.l/.ArioN III' I'ATS 

All fats shiiiild he sa\('(j. rendered, ehirilied ;imi| kept for uso 
ill till' li(iiiseliii|(|. It is necessary to prepare the drippiiiirs with 
Lireal <'are if food fi'ieij in them is to he palatahle. Fat of mutton, 
it' i iiteniii.\ed. is not (h'sirahle to use tor I'lyinLT lisli. ve^'ctahles or 
for hakim;' |)urposes, since it will imiiai't the peculiar flavor of 
mutton to tlu> product. Mutton fat siiould, however, be clarified 
and saved, as it can he used for the fryinjr and roastintr of lamb 
and mutton and in other food preparation, where there will be no 
objection to the mutton flavor. Fried food (beef, cutlets, fish, 
etc.) which is to be served cold should be cooked in vegetable oils 
or margarine, as frying- in drii)pin,us will form white and some- 
wliat hard edges on the meat when cold. Fried fish and heef 
which are to be served hot are better cooked in dripjiings than in 
hiitter. as this fat can he heated to a hiLiiiei' t(Miiperatui'e without 
easily scorchiiiLi'. 

Preparation of Drippings. — The best ])i-eparcd diii)|)ings 
must he without odoi- or taste and can be prej)ared either from 
hog leaf lard oi- from hecf kidney fat or from both kinds of 
fat mixed. 

Leaf lard and heef kidney fat should he full, round and firm 
to look at. Soak the fat in water for twelve houi-s, changing the 
water several times. This soaking will jiartly eliminate the tal- 
low taste, and the memhi-ancs covering the fat w ill he more easily 
removed. All glands antl everything bloody and uiuippetizing 
must be carefull\- cut away. Chop the fat finely or put it 
through a coai-se meat choi)per and iihice in a well-cleaiKHl iron 
kettle for rendering. (A good enamelled vessel should not be 
used, as the enamel will suffer fi'om the high tempei-ature of the 
boiling fat.) Add h.ilt' as much watei- as yon have of lard and 
begin cookinsr. As soon as the wat(M- boils, carefullv remove the 



CANNING MEATS AND SKA F()OJ)S 357 

scum as it forms, and let the fat boil until all water is evapo- 
rated and the fat entirely melted. (If fat was put over the fire 
in a kettle without water added, it would easily brown and have 
a burned taste. Skimming also helps to procure a good flavor.) 
All rendering of fat must be done over a slow fire in uncovered 
vessels, as it is believed that steam carries away strong fiavoi-s. 
When the w-ater is all evaporated and the fat melting, dip up a 
little at a time and strain it through a clean cloth into hot stone 
crocks, lard buckets or jars. All the fat should not be poured 
at once through a strainer made of netting soldered to a tin 
body, as it might heat it enough to melt the solder. The filled 
crocks or cans should be well covered and stored in a cool, dry, 
dark place. The last part of the fat in the kettle usually becomes 
brown and has a little burnt flavor. It should therefore not be 
mixed with the clarified drippings, but be put into a separate 
vessel or mixed with the poorer qualities of fat. 

The cracklings should be pressed to remove all liquid fat. 
The pieces left may then be ground and used for chicken feed. 
The cracklings, if not browned too much, may also be used with- 
out pressing for making crackling bread. They may be canned 
for that purpose. 

Clarifying. — All fats may be clarified by boiling them 
with several pieces of raw Irish potatoes. Be sure to cook 
until all water has evaporated. It is advisable to have three or 
more receptacles for saving fat, so as to keep the different kinds 
separate. 

When rendering suet or tallow it can be improved by melting 
it and pouring it while hot into a bucket of cold water. When 
almost hard, knead it and form into little balls of the size of an 
e^^. Cover these suet balls with a saturated salt solution. (Use 
a plate or wooden cover that fits inside of the vessel and keep it 
weighted down, so the suet will be kept under the brine.) Avoid 
the use of a wooden cover made of yellow pine or any w^ood that 
might affect the flavor of the suet. By salting down suet in this 
manner, it can be kept for a long time and later be mixed with 
other fats as they can be had. Two parts of suet and one of 
leaf lard melted down and clarified together give fat of good 



3r)S sucPKSRFri. c.wNixf; and ['kkskhnixo 

oiIdp ;ui(I ('(»|oi' aiiil i>\\r wliirh is snt'tcr tli.iii suet aluiic. It is 
paii iciilai'ly iisrliil I'ur l'i-\ iipj and iDi- slmrtfiiiiiLr londs uliich 
lia\(' distinctive llavors. 

('Iditjiid (Iriji/iiin/s iiiadr I'toiii leaf lai'd and Imm-I' kidney I'at 
will Itf liMind fxcrllcnt I'ur cookini.f d(in'_dinuts and I'm' dri']) I'ry- 
inir. It is aisd irood lor fi-yin;: ''sli cut lets, for Tryini.' or i-oa.stiiiL' 
lice!' and may he used for l»alcin<^ pancaUcs and wallics. It can 
also he used loi" inakiiiLr ln'itwii Lri'a\i('s. etc II' used in place of 
hutter Tor hakin<; {)uri)oses, it must In- rememhercd to add a little 
salt, as it is not salty lik(> Itntter. 

Soup fdls and I'ats i'l-om friid minis should he heated ami 
freed fi-om any water that mi<:ht he pi-eseiit. Then elai-ify, 
strain and keep in separate containers Ironi the drippinirs nuide 
from leaf lard and hcid' kidney fat, as they will not he so good 
in (piality. 

l"'at from smoked ham and lnuon must also he saved sepa- 
rately. Clai-ify ami keep for use in food w hei'c no ohjections 
will he I'aised to the smoked tlav(»r. It may, foi- instance, he nsed 
for fryinu' llamhurtrer steak and hiirhly flavored foo<ls. 

Fat from (U i r and other ijtiiiK should he soaked in many 
chan<;'es of cold water for forty-ei»rlit hours in order to <ret rid of 
the e-ame llavoi-. Remove the mend)ranes coverinjL; the fat, cut, 
render it and clarify. It can he used for cookin.ir, but does not 
equal the mixture of leaf lard and kidney fat. 

Fat from d ticks, ifirsr and chirkois should also ho saved, 
elarilie(| and mixed with a little beef kidney fat in order to 
harden it. It is very valuable in eookin^ and bakinir. 

Any fats tliat become rancid or are unfit for cookiufr pur- 
poses must not be thrown away, but should be used for makiuET 
household soaps. 

To Make Soap. — Prepare a soda solution by dissolvincr 
ei'jlit ounces (chemically pure) caustic soda in live eupfuls of 
water. Canned lye is not of such pure qualit.w but <iood 
results have been obtained by combining- one can of lye with 
one quart of water. 

Kender the fat and clarify it by boil in? with slices of raw 
potatoes until the fat ceases to crackle. Strain while still warm 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 359 

through a elean muslin cloth. A whiter fat and whiter soap can 
be had if the fat is strained through tine charcoal or clay. 

Combine 2 pounds clean, warm fat with 1% pounds cool soda 
or lye solution and stir with a stick until it is the consistency 
of honey, when it is ready to mold. Pour mixture into agate 
pans which have first been wet or into wooden molds lined with 
paraffin paper, and allow to stand until cool. Before it dries 
remove the paper and stack log cabin fashion for quick drying. 
Wrap and store in boxes. Soap should be kept until it is suffi- 
ciently dry not to become soft as soon as wet. 

Perfume or extra cleansing material may be added during 
the saponifying before the molding consistency is reached. To 
this recipe add II/2 tablespoons borax, I/2 cup ammonia. 

Toilet Soai). — For a good toilet soap use 2 pounds olive 
oil, cottonseed oil, or cocoanut oil, % pound white lard, li/i 
cupfuls (chemically pure) caustic soda, 1 quart water, 6 drops 
lavender, and oil of geranium. Follow directions for making 
given in recipe above. 

Head Cheese. — Follow recipe given in Chapter XVI. When 
cooked and seasoned add a little gelatine dissolved in cold water, 
stir well and fill in No. 2 cans while hot; cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 50 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

When ready to serve it, thoroughly chill the can before open- 
ing. Serve cold. 

Spare Ribs. — Roast the spare ribs in the usual way, seasoning 
to taste. Cook until done, browning them nicely. W^ith a sharp 
knife cut down the inside of each rib, remove the rib bone and 
cut meat in pieces that can pass through can openings. Make 
gravy by adding Avater to the pan grease. Pack meat in cans 
and add the boiling hot gravy to within one-half inch from top 
of can. Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 60 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 



\i{\() Sll'CKSSn I. (•.\\MN(J AND i'UKbKUVlNO 

Pork Sausage Cakes. — 

I poimiU Iran pink 1 rloxo j,Mrlic. ujiiK-i-il i inav l)e 

■J |ic>iiii(l-. lat piirk (jiiiitti'd J 

•J or ;t tahh'spnoiis salt, or salt to J bay li-uvcs, powdered or liruken 

taste in small [licccs 

1 teas|)(Miii Idiick [lepper I ti'aspoori celery Hccd, cni.-lied 

1 t»'asp(i(iii red pepper (may lie omitted i 

1 teaspoon eiiili pepper ( t<i taste) li lo 12 taldespo(jns <lry, linely 
'■_. teaspoon allspice criunhed bread or cracker 

2 or ."i teaspoons sa;,'e (or |ionltry crumbs 

soasoninj,') 2 e;r;.'s JMatcn to;;(ther 

'j to 1 teaspoon lliyme '/■.■ t" 1 f'"I' '^^ sweet milk 

L' lar;.'c unions, minced 

iMicinl well, Idiiii ill cakes. \'ry in (Iccp j"at until nicely 
lirowiied, j)our off execss of grease, add watci- and make <:ravy. 
Two or three cookings may be made i'l one lot frrease. I'aek 
the hrowned saiisa<;e cakes in cans, fill in with hot irravy to 
within one-half inch of top of can. Cap, exhaust 5 minutes 
(exhanstino- is not necessary if packed hot iu cans and sealed 
at once), tip, and process: 

No. I cajis. 4") minutes at 2i).()° Fahrenheit, or 1.5 pounds of steam pressure. 
Xo. .'{ cans, 5;i min\ites a1 2.")0° Falirenlipit. or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Bologna Sausage. — f'oliow sausapre recipes given in Chapter 
X\'l. When cured and cooked, pack in can.s, fill with hot liipiid, 
in which sausage was boiled, to within one-half inch of top of can. 
(.'ap, tip, and process: 
No. 2 cans, 4,') minutes at 2r)(t° Fahrcniioit, or I.') jiouniis of steam pressure. 

Liver Sausage. — Href, Vr<il, or lion Lirrr. — Remove the 
membrane and cut away the larire blood-ve.ssels. Soak in water 
1 to 2 hours to draw out blood. I>oil in fresh water until done. 
When cooled put throuL;li a food ehopiiei- oi' LTrate finely. Take 
half as nuicli boiled fat pork as liver. Divide this fat into two 
])()i'tions: chop one portion into one-fpiarter-inch cubes; pass 
the other poi'tioii throuo'h the food chopper: mix all together 
thoroughly: add salt, ground cloves, ])epi)er, and a little grated 
onion to taste. A little thyme and marjoram nuiy be added to 
suit the taste. (For a liver weighing V(y pounds add -"^j pound 
fat pork, 3 to 4 teaspoomi salt, ^ •_. teaspoon cloves, 1/2 teaspoon 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 3(31 

pepper, 1 small onion, V4 teaspoon thyme, and pinch of mar- 
joram.) This mixture is stuffed in large casings. If no casings 
are available, make casings of clean white muslin. Cover with 
boiling water, bring to a boil and boil for 10 minutes. Pack in 
cans, fill in with the water in which the sausages were boiled. 
Cap, exhaust 5 minutes if cooled (if packed hot, exhausting is 
not necessary), tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 50 minutes at 250° Fahrenlieit. or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. ;3 cans, 05 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

This liver sausage may also be made from the raw liver and 
raw pork, in that case proceed as for above recipe as to season- 
ing, etc., but process the cans 10 minutes longer at temperature 
given. 

May be served hot or cold. 

LIVER PASTES 

Foie Gras Paste. — Thoroughly clean three pounds of fresh 
goose livers. If any green from the gall-bladder is found it 
must be removed. Wash and boil with a little water until the 
inside is no longer rare. Have 4 pounds of fat pork well 
boiled, and when cold mix with livers and pass through meat 
grinder. Mix 2 or 3 softened stale rolls or corresponding amount 
of stale, dried bread crumbs. Pass again through meat grinder. 
Then knead with 1 ounce of salt, pepper, cloves, and spices to 
taste, and if desired, 3 ounces canned truffles cut in about I/4 
inch cubes. Finally mix with the beaten up whites of 11 eggs 
and put the mixture in cans. Small size cans are preferred. Cap, 
exhaust 5 minutes, tip, and process: 

4-ounce glass jars, 40 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 
No. 1 flat tin cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 

Veal or Hog Liver Paste. — 

1 medium size liver (about 3 1 teaspoon ground cloves 

pounds) 1 small onion, grated 

W2 pounds fresh fat pork 3 eggs 

14 pound butter Milk, as needed 

14 pound flour Salt to taste 
1 teaspoon pepper 



;;(;o SUCCKSSITI. ( ANXINC AM) l'i:i:Si;i:\ INti 

Tlic tat is clioppcfl very tine 'l"ln' liiitti-c and tloiii" is cookcii 
lii«r,.i|i,.i- in a l<rtllc, tlicn lliininil willi milk to a very snl't 
iri'ucl. Into this put the ctiniiiHMl t';it. C'noU over a very low 
lire in order not io scorch until the lat is pretty well cookccl out. 

In the meantime jrct the liver ready. Wasli well, remove the 
skin and cut away all veins and meiidn-anes. Scrape and i>ass 
tile li\tr thi-ou^di a meat Lirinih-r. tiien jjlaee it <>n a fine liair 
sieve or sirainci-, poui' the white sauce, or thickcniii^r, over the 
li\(M- and I'nii it all tlirou<rh Die sieve. Stir three efrj; yrdks 
into tiiis strained livei- mass and add 1 teaspoon pepjier, 1 tea- 
spoon fjrronnd cloves, about 2 tablcsiioons of salt (added according 
to taste), 1 small ui'aled onion and the beaten whites of th(^ 
3 e<;,i,'s. I'our into cans, Wnt do not till them entiii'ly. ("ap, 
exlunist ") to S minntes, tip, and process : 

4-ouncL' j,dass jars, 40 iiiiiiutc.-s at li.V)' I'aluciilicil. ov I') poiiiicl.s of steam 

pressure. 
Xo. 1 Mat tin cans, 4") niinut'v'.s at 250° I'alironheit, or 15 iiniinds of steam 

pressure. 

Note. — A very Li'ood liver i)a.ste can be made l)y takinir liver 
and I'al pork as in above recipe, pass throui^h meal iri'inder 
twice, stir well with 2 tablespoons salt, 1 teaspoon pepper, 1 
teaspoon .around cloves. 1 finely cho]ijH'd medium size onion, 6 
tablespoons cracker oi- di-ied bread crumt)s, 3 eggs beaten together, 
and Yj cup of sweet milk. Fill info cans, cap, exhaust, tip, and 
])rocess as above stated. 

Roast Fowl. — ( "lean the fowl, wash, and wipe dry. 1 1" turkey, 
goose, or guinea fowl, lard the breast or cover it with thin slices 
of larding ]K)rk. For chicken and duck tie small piece of larding 
poi-k ovei' bi-east. I'ul two tablespoons lard and butter mixed 
in a I'oasfing \r,\\\. Place in oven and when hot lay turkey or fowl 
in the hot grease and turn until seared on all sides. Season 
turkey or goose with 1 tablespoon of salt sprinkled all over, and 
% teaspoon of pepper ( for smaller fowls use less salt and pepper) . 
Pour into roasting pan half a cu|) of boilini: water. Place in 
oven to roast, and baste frequently with tlie li(|uiil in the |)an, 
turning the fowl once in a while to get it nicely browned. Cook 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 3G3 

until done without needing to be entirely tender. Remove from 
oven, place on platter, and cut meat from bones. Cut in pieces 
that can pass through can openings. Pack into cans. Skim 
excess of fat from gravy, and pour gravy over meat in cans until 
half an inch from top (if not enough gravy add boiling water). 
Cap, exhaust 5 minutes (if cooled), tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Game birds may be treated as above, but should be stuffed 
with some parsley. 

Soup. — The bones of the turkey, chicken, goose, or duck, with 
what little meat still cling-s to them, and the scalded and skinned 
feet are put on to boil in cold water (enough to cover) and 
simmered for several hours with seasoning until liones are ex- 
hausted for soup stock. Cook down until very strong, strain and 
fill hot into cans to within half an inch from top of can. Cap, 
tip, and process : 

No. 2 cans, 40 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 poimds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 50 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Potted Meat. — What meat was left on the bones may now be 
removed and ground fine in a meat grinder, mixed with salt 
and spices to taste, a little soup stock or gelatine (dissolved in 
cold water) added. (Use to 1 pound of meat 1 or liA teaspoons 
salt, 1/^ teaspoon pepper, other spices to suit taste.) Fill hot 
in No. 1 cans, cap, tip, and process: 

No. 1 flat cans, 35 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 

Fried Chicken (Spring Frier). — Clean in the usual manner, 
split lengthwise or cut in quarters. Sear in hot grease, sprinlcle 
with salt and pepper or, if preferred, dip in flour or cracker 
crumbs mixed with salt and pepper. Fry until nicely browned 
in the same way as preparing for the table. The canning may 
now be done in different ways, as follows : 

Canning dry tvithout removing the bones: Pack in thoroughly 
cleaned and sterilized cans, add no li(iuid. Cap, exhaust 8 
minutes, tip, and process : 



.^(•,4 SUCCESS IT I. (ANN INC. AND IMlKSKltVINQ 

No. 2 cull', 1 liom ami .{(l iiiiiiuti.s at 2i'>i)" I'alirfiilifit, <»r l."i jk^uikI-. uf -ti'um 

\nvsHUTv. 

Canning with gravy, wUhout n moving the hours: Pack in 
the sterilized cans, lill to within one-hall' ineh fioni top of ean 
with boilinj; hot ^ravy niaiic troin the pan grease with additiou 
of water or souj) stock, cap, lip, and process: 

No. "J cans, 1 liour ut -'><• Fuliroiilicit, or 1.') jx)iui(l.s of Hti'arn [)refi8urc. 

Canning after n moving hones: Prepare as above stated, cut 
the cooked meat from boues and pack in sterili/.ed cans, acid 
hot g:ravy to within one-fourth or one-half ineli from top of can. 
Cap, exliaust 5 minutes if meat and ^n-avy have eoolcd. tij), and 
process: 

No. 2 cans, 4r> minutes at ^.lO" I'alircnlu'it. or 1") jmiimi.s of steam pressure. 

Bones may be utilized for makinj; soup slock as mentioned 
under descrii)tion of roast fowl. 

Fricasseed Chicken. — Clean chicken in usual manner and cut 
in pieces. Place in a kettle with enough water to cover. Tie in 
a bunch, for each 21/2 pounds of chicken, 2 branches of parsley, 
1 snuiU piece celery, a sprifj of thyme, 1 bay leaf and small piece 
of leek. Add 1 teaspoon salt and VL' teaspoon pepper. Let boil 
for 15 minutes. Add 12 small peeled white onions and 1 irood- 
sized potato, peeled and cut in little cubes. If desired 2 or S 
ounces of sliced and diced pork may be added. (>>ok for 
1 -i hour. Remove chicken and herbs. Cut meat from bones and 
return it to the kettle. Allow it to boil and then pack hot in 
cans to within Vl; inch from top, distributing: meat and soup 
evenly in all cans. Add y^ teaspoon fiiu'ly chopped fresh parsley 
to each can. Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrcnlioit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

When ready to serve empty contents of can into a sauce pan, 
heat and add a little Hour stirred with cold water for thickeninir. 
The beaten yolk of an egg and a little butter may also be added. 
Serve hot on toast. 



CAXXING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 365 

Chicken Gumbo. — 

1 c'liicken weighing 4 or 5 pounds 2 red pepper pods 

(old fowl may be used) 1/2 teaspoon thyme 

good sized onions 2 tablespoons salt (or salt to taste) 

2 No. 3 cans of tomatoes, or corre- 4 quarts boiling water 

spending amount of fresh 2 No. 3 cans chopped or sliced okra 

3 tablespoons butter or a corresponding amount of 
3 tablespoons lard fresh sliced okra 

6 whole cloves Parsley to taste 

2 bay leaves Celery to taste 
A few peppercorns 

Clean and cut to pieces. Melt the lard and butter in a frying 
pan. When hot put in the chicken and fry to a nice brown 
color. Remove the chicken and place in a stew pan. Peel 
the onions and chop fine; put them into the hot grease in 
which the chicken was browned and fry brown. Add this 
with what grease is left in the pan to the chicken. To this 
add the tomatoes, cloves, bay leaves, peppercorns, pepper 
pods, thyme, and boiling water. Let the whole mixture simmer 
until meat slips from the bones. Take out the bones, mince the, 
meat, return it to the soup mixture, add the salt, some chopped 
parsley and celery and the canned okra. (If fresh okra is used, 
it should be added when tomatoes are added.) 

Fill boiling hot in cans, cap, tip, and process. 
No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 2.50° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Serve with cooked rice moulded in a cup, and the chicken 
gumbo poured around it. 

Pigeons. — Young Birds. — Dress birds, wash well, lard with 
little strips of salted fat bacon in a row on each side of breast 
or use little strips of fat bacon by side of breast, stuff with some 
parsley and giblets, and roast for one-half hour, basting fre- 
quently. Salt to taste. Split lengthwise, place in cans, pour 
hot grav}^ over them to within one-half inch of top of can. Cap, 
tip, and process: 
No. 2 cans, 1 hour and 15 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds steam 

pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 1 hour and 30 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds steam 

pressure. 



:]{](] sLi'(i;ssi ri, i wmnc and i'i:i:si;i:vin(; 

(fl<J Jlirds. Dress liinls. wnsli wdl, put llir'pc t;il>los[)()ons of 
liird, iliirr ul' liiiiicr III a krtilc. In tins I'ry tin- iiiircdiis to a 
iiicr rich liiiiwii ciiloi-. Ila\c sunic oiiioiis peeled, clmp line and 
hrowii in luitlei- ay lard or a iiiixtiirc (d' tlie.se. i |''(ii- ]'_' pi^n-ons 
take '].{ id' a pmind of onions.) Add l)ro\vne(l onions and I'at 
to pigeons. Season with some peppeicoins, two elove.s, one or two 
hay leaves ((d<ives an<l l)a.\' leaves nniy he omitted if not desired). 
(\)Ver with Wiitcr, simiiier until the meat is tender ;ind nnry he 
removed lidiii the hones. Add Troiii time to lime a little lioilinir 
water to keep hirds covered. When the hirds are tender, remove 
from the fii-e. l\emove the meat from the hones. Ketiirn the 
meat to tile 'jrax.N. addiii'j- to taste, salt, eliopped jiarslov, and 
eelerx. I'aek wliil(> Ixiilinii h"t in cans and lill with uravy to 
within onediiilf ineli of top. dip. tip, and iirocess: 
No. 2 cans, 4.') iniimto at lioO" Kalirciilicit . or 1.") |)nniicl> of steam pressure. 

S}))(ill (lainr hirds may he eaiined like i)iuei»ns. P.laekhirds 
treated like old i)i,ueons make a very niee stew. Wheji small 
game hirds are panned with the bones left in. they sliould be 
processed for No. 2 cans, one hour and fifteen minutes at 1") 
])ounds pres.sure. 

R.VRBITS 

Rabbit Sausage vv^ith Pork Flavor. — Clean th(> jaek 
rabbit and wash in salted water to draw out the blood. Cut 
meat from bones and remove the thick membranes covering back 
and thighs. Pass meat through meat grinder twice. If desired 
to have i)orl\ flavored sausage cakes, add 2 pounds of fat pork, 
ground ui) tine for each 4 pounds of rabbit meat and season as 
per recipe for sausage cakes (page 357). F<utn into little cakes 
and fry in deep fat until nicely browned. Can a.s sausage cakes, 
filling can to within one-half inch from top with hot gravy. 
Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahronlioit. or 15 pounds of stoani pressure. 
No. .3 cans. 55 minutes at 250° Falncnlicit. or 15 pounds of steam pressiire. 

■Rabbit Sausage. — May also be made without the addi- 
tion of poi'k. l'i-i)c(M'(l as aboN'e. grind the meat, weigh it. To 
G pounds of meat take 2 onions, finely minced (if desired onions 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 



367 



may be left out of cakes, but should then be sliced, browned, and 
packed in can with sausafje cakes), 2 tablespoons salt, 2 teaspoons 
pepper, 2 bay leaves powdered or broken in small pieces, a pinch 
each of thyme and allspice, 8 to 12 tablespoons of finely crumbed 
dry bread or cracker crumbs, 2 eggs beaten together and I/2 to 1 
cup of sweet milk. Knead well, make into little cakes, fry until 
nicely browned in deep fat. Pack into cans and add gravy made 




;,, : FRIED 

Fig. 172. — Rabbit prepared as for serving may be canned. 

from part of grease (in which cakes were fried) with water 
added. Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Rabbit Stew. — After the rabbit is cleaned and washed 
in salt water to draw out the blood, cut meat from bones, 
remove tough membranes and cut meat in pieces about 1 inch 
square. Sprinkle with Hour and salt and prepare as per recipe 
for Hungarian Goulash. Fill into cans while hot; cap, tip, and 
process : 
No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenlieit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 



3r,s 



surcKssFrL canmm; and imii;si:ii\ in(; 



Jugged Hare > lirl-jiaii Ihuo' or .lack liaMiit may bo nsod) 
(.Figs. 172 and 17.'{(." ('lean th.- han', miioM- tin- tou<:h skin and 
incndtranrs covoi-iriLT the nical. ('iit in pif-cs of about '2 inch 
Icn^'th. Cut. 1^ pound of bacon inlo dice of about ball" an inch 
s(|uarn. 

Mix toilet hfT :{ teaspoons salt, 1 teaspoon blaek pepper, 4 tea- 
spoons Hour, K, teaspoon thyme, 1 bay h-af broken or enislied, 
3 tea-spoons finely ehoppt-d onions, 1 teaspoon ^"^rated nutmej?. and 
a pinch ol' ground cloves. 




Roll the diced bacon and one-fourth of the meat of the hare 
in this mixture. ]Melt 2 tablespoons of butter, or lard and butter 
mixed in a saucepan, when hot add the bacon and all the meat, 
brown nicely, add a little hot water or soup stock and simmer 
for i/> hour. Fill hot into cans: cap. tip. and process: 
No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 2;')0° Falironhcit. oi 1") povinds of steam jjrcssuro. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 2i>()° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

CAXXIXG FISH 

Do not attempt canning of fish unless absolutely sure they 
are fresh (Fig. 174). As soon as fish are caught it is well to kill 



CANXING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 



369 



them with a knii'e and let the blood run out. Scale fish (it is 
easier to remove scales if fish are just dipped into boiling water). 
If skin is verj' tough, remove it and wash the fish clean. Remove 
entrails and the dark membrane that in some fish {e.g., mullets) 
covers the abdominal cavity. For small fish the backbone may 
be left in. For the larger fish remove backbone and utilize it 
with what meat adheres to it for making fish chowder. 

In order to draw out all blood before canning, soak fish in a 




Fig. 174, — Sorting fish for canning. 

strong brine. One ounce salt to 1 quart water from 10 minutes 
to 1 hour, according to thickness of fish. The use of a heavier 
brine will harden the meat and make it firmer for canning. Do 
not use brine more than once. 

Plain Canning. — Remove fish from brine, drain well and cut 

in lengths which will fit into cans. Pack closely in the can to 

within one-half inch from the top. Add a small amount of salt 

(about 1/3 to 1/2 teaspoon). Do not add any water. Cap, place 

24 



.-^70 srrcKSSFrr. canninc and i'i:isi;i:\in(; 

rails in slra?ii-|>i-(\ssiii'r caiiin'r and cxlianst I'oi* 1<I iiiinutos at T) 
pdMnds dl" sicaiii prcssiiir. (>prn iiclrock on I'rtoi-t 'i-anin'r** and 
let steam oscapt'. i-t-niDve covor and lake out fans. Wipe lup of 
cans and tip. Return to rainier and |»roc»'s.s: 

Xo. '2 cans. C.i) inimitcs at 27>t) l'alirciilnit, or l."> iioiirnU of sti-aiii |iri>siiri'. 

Tlio lisli iiia_\' also he pacl<cd in cans as aliove dcscrilicd. then 
eap, exhaust 10 ininntt's at hoiliiiL; tniiiicral nrc ( I'll' F. i. ti[), 
and process. 

No. 2 cans. Sd minutes at •iof)'' Falirciihcit. nr |.'> i.iiiinds of steam prcs-ure. 

In ease hii-fre hones are left in tlie tish, the .\o. 2 eans must he 
jiroeessed foi' 1 hour and H") miinites at 2')() oi- lo pounds of 
steam pressni'e. 

liemove the eans irom the eanner and eool immediately after 
proeessing hy innnersing them in a tuh of eold water. 

Fried Fish. — Clean the lish and remove entrails. Split along 
the haek and remove the l)aekhone. Plaee in strong salt water 
and leave in this brine, aeeording to the thickness of the meat, 
from in iiiiiiutes to 1 houi'. This w ill draw oul Mood and harden 
tish. Di-ain, wipe dry. and cut in pieces that can ]iass through 
oan openinus. Dip in beaten v^^^x or eorinneal fmay be omitted) 
and i)nt in frying basket. Fry in deep fat until nicel\- browned. 
Drain well and i)laee the pieces on thick, coarse brown pajn-r to 
absf)rb exeess fat. Paek in No. 2 cans C inside lac(iuered eans 
liest) to within ^ ■> inch fi'om to]) of can. Do not add any li<piid. 
Cap and exhaust 8 minutes, tij). and i)roeess: 

No. -2 cans, 1 hour and ."^O minutes at 2.")0° I''alirenlioit. or 1;") pounds of 

steam pressure. 

Fish Cakes and Dumplings of Forced Fish. — The be«;t fish 
to n.se foi- forced fish is one with not too loose or soft meat. Either 
fresh water or salt water fish may be used. 

Scale the fish, wash and split along the back. Remove entrails, 
backbone, and ribs. AVash again and wipe with a coarse linen 
cloth. AVith a knife scrape out the meat in order not to use 
tougher membranes. Chop the scraped meat very fine, and with 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 37 1 

the help of a wooden potato masher and a wooden bowl mash and 
pound the fish with salt added until it forms a tough dough. 
Then for each IK, pounds of scraped fish add 14 pound butter, 
4 tablespoons potato starch or 6 tablespoons cornstarch, or wheat 
flour and cornstarch mixed. When mixed well stir in 3 eg'gs, 
one at a time, and add white pepper to taste. Stir in % to IY2 
quarts of sweet milk until the mass is of the right consistency. 
With a spoon drop the batter thus prepared in little cakes on a 
hot greased frying pan and fry to a rich brown color. The 
dough may also be dropped as little dumplings into boiling salted 
water and cooked until done. Remove and drain well. In either 
way pack in cans and fill in the space between the fish cakes 
or dumplings with boiling fish stock made by boiling the back- 
bones (with what meat adheres to them). Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 60 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

W^hen serving the cakes, reheat on hot frying pan lightly 
greased. 

Fish Chowder. — 

4 Bermuda or white onions (medium 1 level tablespoon of butter 

size) diced 1 level teaspoon of white pepper 

3 potatoes, medium size, diced 1 to 2 level teaspoons of salt or salt 

1 pound of tish picked from the to taste 

bones \\'ater to cover 

The backbones cut out of large fish, with what meat adheres 
to them, and other fish scraps may be used for fish chowder. 

Put over the fire in cold water (just enough to cover) and 
cook until meat can easily be removed from bones. Take up fish 
and remove bones, strain fish soup, and return soup with the 
picked fish meat to the kettle. Add diced onions, diced potatoes, 
butter, and white pepper to taste. Simmer until vegetables are 
half done. Salt to taste. Pack hot in cans. Cap, tin, and process : 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 60 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 



37.> srcx'Kssi ri. c.wNiNc and pukskhvinc; 

Fish Roe. — I'sc mily tin- nx' of fn'slily (•aut,'lit lisli and only 
sni'li iMc ,is is known to In- ^'(mmI to cat. i 'i'lic me of sonic lish, 
lor instiincf of tin- Liar-lisli, is not considered lit to cat.) ("lean 
the roc liy rciiio\inL; llic shreds and .string's adhering to it and 
wjisli well ill cold water, ltcin'_' i-and'nl not to break the roe. 
Soak foi" alioiit L' hours in hriiie nuuh' l»y di.ssolvinj; ounces 
of s;ilt in (» (|uarls oi" water. Drain and |»aeU into No. 2 can.s. 
Cap and oxliaust 10 minutes at boilin<; temperature (212"-' F.), 
tip, anil process: 

No. 2 caii^. 7-") ininiito at Jin I'MliKiilicit . or 111 |i(iiim<I> nf sU-aiii prosiirp. 
Insidi^ laeqnored tin cans ;ire |)referablc. 

Shrimps. — Shrimps sliouhl he used wlien alisoiutoly fresli. as 
they deteriorate very (piickly. They may l)e peeletl or h/ft with 
shell on until eooked. In either way they are boiled in salted 
water, 1 pound of salt to a uallon of water. Do not put shi-inip-; 
into the water until it is boilin-:-. If to be jiacked wet, boil from 
.") to fi miiuites. If to l)e ])acked i\v\\ hoil fi'om (i to 8 minutes. 
If tlicy wei'c iu)t ])eeled before boilin.u', di'aiii Ihroiioh a col.'iiider 
and sprinkle with salt. This will hai'dcui the meat and they can 
be peeled more easily. Shrimps should be paeked in inside lac- 
quered tin cans and may be packed wet or dry. 

Wet Pack. — After shrimps are boiled and peeled, pack in 
cans and fill in with a weak brine to within ij inch from top 
of can (brine: 1 level teas])oon of salt to a cpuirt of boilinp: 
water). Caj), exhaust ."> inimitcs, tip. and process: 

No. 1 cans, 12 to l.") niimitcs at 240" ValirciiluMt, nr lo pnutids of -loam 

pressure. 
No. 2 cans, 20 (o :)() minutes at 240° Falircnlieit, or 10 pounds of steam 

pressure. 

Drt/ I 'ark. — After shi-imps are l)oiled and peeled, as above 
mentioned, pack dry in cans, adding no li<iuid. Cap, exhaust 
8 minutes, tip and process : 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 373 

No. 1 cans, UO minutes at 240° Faliienlieit, or 10 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 2 cans, 90 minutes at 240° Fahrenheit, or 10 jjounds of steam pressure. 

Note. — In ease inside lacquered cans cannot be had, the 
shrimps can be put up in ordinary tin cans lined with good 
parchment paper at sides, bottom and top. They may also be 
put up in small glass jars. 

Drying of Shrimps. — After shrimps are boiled and peeled, as 
above stated, they may be spread on cheesecloth spread over the 
wire bottom of the evaporating trays and dried at a temperature 
of from 110° F. to 150° F. When thoroughly dry, they may be 
packed in dry, clean, glass jars, or in parchment paper lined 
boxes. 

Crab Meat. — To 5 gallons of hot water in a large kettle add 
14 pound of bicarbonate of soda (common baking soda). When 
the soda water boils add the live crabs and lioil rapidly for 20 
minutes. Remove crabs and wash them in cold water. Pick out 
all meat, being careful not to include the shells in leg and claw 
joints. Wash the meat in a weak brine (1 ounce of salt to 3 
quarts of water). Drain and pack in inside lacquered No. 1 
flat cans. Cap and exhaust 8 minutes. Tip and process: 

No. 1 cans, .35 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

As soon as time of processing is up, let out steam at once, 
open canner and quickly plunge cans into cold water, as otherwise 
the crab meat will become discolored. 

Oysters. — In canning oysters be sure they are absolutely 
fresh. Open the shells by hand and reject any oysters where the 
shell is partly open, as this is a .sign that the oyster in this par- 
ticular shell is dead and unfit for use. Rinse oysters to be sure 
no pieces of shell or grit are put in the cans. Pack 16 ounces 
of oyster meat in a No. 2 can and fill with boiling brine (made 
in the proportion of 1/4 pound of salt to 5 quarts of water) to 
within 1/0 inch from top of can. Cap and exhaust 10 minutes at 
boiling temperature (212° F.), tip, and process-: 

No. 2 cans, .35 minutes at 240° Fahrenheit, or 10 pounds of steam pressure. 



3; I sr( ( i:ssi I 1, cANM.\(. and i'Ki;si;i:viNCi 

Clam Chowder. — 

•2 <lozi'Ti tlianid (■l:iiii> clitipiicil lim- .( lar;.-c iiotiiloc^ |ici|t(l and cut inUi 

- <|iiiiil> hot wall r (licv 

- iM('<liiiiii. wliilc onions. slic<tl 1 to 2 ti'iispoons salt (to tasti*) 
•J luanclu's of oi-lcrv, rut line 1 salts|)oon i»('|)|nr 

li Ici'ks, cut line :! \ny<sf tomatoes peeled and i-ut 

■J slices of polk oi' bacon cut into line 

dice 1^., tj-aspoon tlivnie 

1 t«'aspoon linely cliop|(iri p:ir»ley 

Heat tlio polk (H- l)a<M»ii and Try lln- uniixis. cflcry and It-ck 
in tlu' fat; aild tlic li<|iiid ri-oin llu- clams, water and potatoes, 
c-ook' 10 iiiinutcs, add the claiiis, tomatoes, salt, pepper, and lliyme 
(Worcester sauce accordinu: to taste may he added . lioil Ini- 
10 minutes, add the parsley and fill hot into iii.si(h' hnvpn-r.-d 
cans. Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans. 40 minutes at 200° Falirenlieit, or 1.1 ]>ounds of steam pressure. 
Xo. ■; cans, ;■)() niinutes at 2.')()'' I'aliicnlicit. or 1.") pounds of steam pressure. 

AVluMi servinp;, equal amounts of liutter and flour may be 
creamed together and added as thickening to the heated chowder. 



QUESTIONS 

1. What advanta<;e. if any, lias home canned meat over salted, smoked 

or dried meat? 

2. What causes spoilajre of meat? 

3. What dan<rers, if anj', from spoiled meat and wliat are the best preeau- 

linns against spoilage of meat? 

4. What eiiuipment is necessary for home canning of meats and sea foods? 

5. What kind or type of canner is necessary for canning meats and sea 

foods? Why? 
0. Why are " iiot water" caiiners (witli a temperature of 212° I'".) or 
"water seal" canners (with a temperature of 214° V.) not saf«! 
to use for the canning of meats? 

7. What is the first requirement of meats .ind fish for canning? 

8. How soon after Imtchering may meat be used for canning? 
U. TIow should meat be prepared for canning? Fish? 

10. Wiiat advantage, if any, is there in cooking meat (roasting, broiling, 

frying, etc.) before canning? 

11. Describe how every part of the animal may be used. 

12. Wliat seasonings are used in preparing meat for canning? 

13. In roasting meats for canning, how long should it be cooked? 



CANNING .AlEATS AND SKA FOODS 375 

14. ^^"llat may be added to sausage meat, potted meats and liver paste to 

extend the meat flavor? 

15. What' advantages, if any, have tin cans over glass jars for canning 

of meats and sea foods Y 
1(). How full sliould containers he packed with meat? W'itli gravy? 

17. Can exhausting of cans before tipi)ing be dispensed with? When? 

18. What (empcrature is necessary for jjerfect sterilization of canned meat 

(length of time depending on size of container and preparation and 

nietiiod of packing the meat) ? 
1!'. When is it necessary to use inside lacquered tin cans? 
20. Why are glass containers impractical for canning of crab meat? 

BIBLIOGRArHY 

1. Anthony, G. A., and Ashbrook, F. G., ini7. " Killing Hogs and Curing 

Pork," Farmers' Bulletin No. 913, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

2. Hamel, G. T., "Modern Practice of Canning Meat," 1911. Published by 

Brecht Company, St. Louis, Mo. $5.00. 

3. Lund, F. P.. " Meat Canning," Circular 02, States Relations Service, 

Office of Extension Work, South, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Wasliington, D. C. 

4. Farmers' Bulletin No. 496, " Raising Belgian Hares and Other Rabbits"; 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 684, " Squab Raising " ; Farmers' Bulletin No. 
697, "Duck Raising"; Farmers' Bulletin No. 701, "Turkey Rais- 
ing": Farmers' Bulletin No. 880, "Backyard Poultry Keeping." 
Division of Publication, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 



APPENDIX 



ADI)Ur;sS LIST OF STATK i NSTlTt.'TlONS I'UOM \V1IJ( II ACKK IJLTUKAL 
KXTKNSION WOltK INDKli TIIK .S.MITII-I.KVKlt ACT IS UllCi;( TKU 

I'dr iiilormation fonceniiiij; iluh work iti any ntati' wrilt," to ttit- Uircctor 
of Kxtciision at tlie State L'ollej,'e of Agriculture. 



STATK 



AlaliaiM:i . 
Arizona . . 

Arkansas . 
California 

Colorado . 



Connecticut 
Delaware . . 
Florida . . . . 



Ceorpia 
Idaho . . 
Illinois 

Indiana 
Iowa . . 



Kansas . . 
Kentucky 

Louisiana 

JIaine . . . 

Maryland 



MaasachuHctta 
Michigan .... 

376 



ADDRESS 



.Mabama Polyteelinic Institute, Auhurn. 

College of Agriculture, I'niversity of Arizona, 

Tucson. 
K.xtension Director, Old State House, Little ILock. 
College of Agriculture, University of California. 

Berkeley. 
State Agricultural College of Colorado. Fort Col- 
lins, 
Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs. 
Delaware College, Newark. 
College of Agriculture, University of Florida. 

(Jainesville. 
Georgia State College of Agriculture, Athens. 
Kxtension Director, the State House. Boise. 
College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, 

Urbana. 
Purdue I'niversity. Lafayette. 
Iowa St<ite College of Agriculture and Mechanic 

Arts, Ames. 
Kansas State Agricultural College. Manhattan. 
College of Agriculture, The Stale University, 

Lexington. 
Ivouisiana State University aiid Agrimltural and 

^^rechanical College, Baton Rouge. 
College of Agriculture, I^niver.«ity of "Maine, 

Orono. 
Maryland State College of .Vgriculturc, College 

Park. 
Massachusetts Agricultural College. Amher.'st. 
Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing. 



APPKXDIX 



STATE 



ADDRESS 



Minnesota 


College of Agriculture, University of Minnesota, 




University Farm, St. Paul. 


Mississippi 


Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, 
Agricultural College. 


Missouri 


College of Agriculture, University of Missouri, 
Columbia. 


Montana 


Montana State College of Agriculture and Me- 




chanic Arts, Bozeman. 


Nebraska 


College of Agriculture, University of Nebraska, 
Lincoln. 


Nevada 


College of Agriculture, University of Nevada, 
Keno. 


New Hampshire 


New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the 
^Mechanic Arts, Durham. 


New Jersey 

New Mexico 


Rutgers College, New Brunswick. 
New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic 
Arts, State College. 




New York 


New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca. 


North Carolina 


North Carolina College of Agriculture and Me- 


North Dakota 


chanic Arts, West Raleigh. 
Xorth Dakota Agricultural College, Agricultural 
College. 


Ohio 


College of Agriculture, Ohio State University, 
Columbus. 


Oklahoma 


Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, 
Stillwater. 


Oregon 

Pennsylvania 


Oregon State Agricultural College, Corvallis. 
Pennsylvania State College, State College. 




Rhode Island State College, Kingston. 


South Carolina 


Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina, 




Clemson College. 


South Dakota 

Tennessee 


South Dakota State College, Brookings. 
College of Agriculture, University of Tennessee, 
Knoxville. 


Texas 


Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, 




College Station. 


Utah 


Agricultural College of Utah, Logan. 


Vermont 


University of Vermont and State Agricultural 




College, Burlington. 


Virginia 


Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg. 
State College of Washington, Pullman. 


Washington 



STATE 

\\ isidii^iii . . . 
Wyoming 



Sl'CCKSSI'l I, ( ANMNC AM) l'l:i:Si;i;\l .\(i 



ADDRESS 

(ill !(■;:(• (il \;;ri(iilliirc, \\(>l \ii;iiiiiii I niveruity, 

.\l(»r;:unt<>« n. 
('<illc;ri' of A;^! iciilliiri', I 'rii\fi >.ity (if Wisconsin, 

.MuiIImmi. 
('ulli';,^" of Ajiriciiltiin-, liiivfrsit y of Wyoming;. 

I. it ramie. 



ADDKKSS LIST OK FIRMS riUMSHINC; SII'PI.II-,S lOH CANNING 
AND l'UESi:UVING 

<'nnni)i(i Outfits and Supplies 

Anifiifitii (';iii ( '(iiiiii;iiiy . At laiitii, (It'or^iia Iloiiic cainnTs. <'aii>, ami 

lalH'is. 

iJarlir. .Mr>. Ilciiniiu'. . . I'.altiiiiort". Maryland ...Tray for lioilcr i ."{ in 1). 
■Jit (iarrison Jyane. 

I,, i;. Collins i.^ Co W'asliiiigton. 1). C i'cnnant> ami Itanncis. 

41() lOlli St., N. W. 

luibanks, (Jt'o. ]> liiion City, (Jeorj^ia . . . llot-wati-r caniuTs. i-ans. 

Fanning Canning .\Ia- 

cliiiu' Coin[iaiiy Mcriilian, Missis^i])|ii . . liol-watcr liatli c-anncr. 

l'"av()rit(' .M anil fail wring 

Company Tainjia, Florida \\ atcr-scal canncr. 

(iriflitli \ 'riirncr Co. . . IJaltimore, Alaryland ...Steam canni-'s. 
2()r)--207 X. l»ac-a St. 

llani|i \\ illiam.s Hot Springs, Arkansas. . I lomo canners. 

Home Canner .Manufac- 
turing Company Hickory, Xortli Carolina. Hot -water hath canner. 

llenninger & Ayes .Manu- 
facturing Company . . . Poitland. Oregon Steajn caiuiers. 

K. F. Kirwan & Company.lialtimore, .Maryland . . . Hot-water liatli canner. 

Monarch Manufacturing 

Company Chattanooga, Tennessee . Hot-water hath canm-r. 

Modern Canner Conii)any. Chattanooga, Teimessee .Hot -water hath canner. 

Northwestern Steid and 

Iron Worlcs I'"an Claire, Wisconsin. .Steam oanners. 

Phillips & lUittorlV .Manu- 
facturing Coni])any ...Nashville. Tennessee ... Hot water hath canncr. 

Pressure Cooker Com- 
pany Denver. ( olorado \lumimun steam canners 

and eookeis. 

Raney ( aimer Comjiany. Chattanooga. Tennessee .ITot-water hath canner. 

IJoyal Home Cannei- Com- 

Iiany Chattanooga, Tennessee .Tlot-watcr bath canner. 



APPENDIX 379 

Royal .Supply Conii)any .Cincinnati, Oliio Canners. 

Southern Evaporator 

Company Cliattanooga, lenncssee. .Hot-water bath canner. 

Sprague Canniiij; Ma- 

ciiint'ry Company . . . . Ciiieago, Illinois Steam canners. 

222 Nortii Wabash Ave. 

Stahl, F. S Quincy, Illinois Hot- water bath canner. 

The Dandy Canner Com- 
pany Overton, Texas Hot-water Itatli caimer. 

Utility Company Hickory, North Carolina. Hot-water canner. 

West Manufacturing 

Company Pliilaik'lpliia, Pa " Carbery Water-seal 

Florida Metal Products 

Company Tacksonville, Florida . . .Canning outfits. 

Thomas lioberts & Co. . .Philadelphia, Pa Canning outfits. 

Atlanta Wooden Ware 

Company Atlanta, (Jeorgia Canning outfits. 

Wilmot Castle & Co Rochester, New York . . .Canning outfits. 

Carolina Metal Products 

Company Wilmington, N. C Canning outfits. 

Wyatt Metal Works . . . .Dallas, Texas Canning outfits. 

Steetzman Mfg. Co Ligonier, Indiana Canning outfits. 

National Canner Co New Orleans, Louisiana. Canning outfits. 

Willson Canner Company.Louisville, Kentucky . . . Canners. 
8th and G Sts., N. W. 
Washington, D. C. 

Mechamcal Seals and >S'ra/ers for Tin and dhiss 
American Metal Cap 

Company Brooklyn, New York . . . .Metal bottle caps. 

Summit St. and Com- 
mercial Wharf. 
Bowers Can Seal Com- 
pany lioston, IMassachusetl s . . Aufoniatie can sealers, 

14G Summer St. tin cans. 

Burpee & Letson, Ltd .... South Bellinghani. W'ash.Autonuitic cai! sealers, 

tin cans. 
Crown Corlv and Seal 

Company Baltimore, Chicago, San 

Francisco, and other 

cities ]\Ietal bottle caps and 

sealers. 
Henninger & Ayes ^lanu- 

factu ring Company ...Portland, Oregon Automatic can sealers, 

tin cans. 



:]S() succrssri 1- ( a.\mn(; and i'Ui:.si:i;\ inu 

Nt'w I'idccss Cork Coni- 

|iiiny lliihokcii, Niw Jersey . . . Metal Inittle ciiiis. 

l.'>tli and (iurileii St.s. 
'1 lie Krilei|>i ise Maiiulae- 

tiinii;: ( II. of I'a I'liilailelpliiu, I'a I'. «> t t 1 e capporH — from 

tlilee illilies to 14 

iiiclifs. 
American I'lirc I'ood 

l'rt)(css C'(>ni|iaiiv .... Italtinntre, Marylanil . . . Hand sealinjr inarliino for 

;.'Iass jars. 
Anelior Cap & Closure 

Corjioral ion ilrodklyti. .\e\v ^'ork ...Font niadiiiie for sealing 

Tearl and I'm-peet Sts. glasses, 
llandyi'ap .Manufacturing; 

Company ( 'liiea^''n, Illinois Ifand >ealiiiLr niaeliines. 

301 l-.'{(iL!;'3 Loomi.s Croun caps. 

Place 

Silver & Company Itrooklyn, Xew York . . . Triiit jar lifti'rs. 

;3()4-:n4 Hewes Sts. 

fit earners 
Wilmol, Castle & Co. . . . IJocliester, Xew York. . . .Steamers. 

llcatinij Devices 

Manninfr. i'>o\vnian& Co.Meriden. Connecticut . . .Alcoliolite stoves. 
Clohe (Jas Lijiiit Com- 
pany I'loston. Massachusetts . . Keroseiu' ^'as .stoves. 

\\. .1. I'.akir ( ompany. .. Newport, Kentucky . . . .(!ates foldinji; camp stxive. 

jrasoline stove. 

Till ('(Dis. tHiiss ./iirs. lAtrthcnmirr -furs. Hntlhs. dinl I'lihlnr I'iiiiis 

.\cine (ilass Comjiany .. .Olcan. Xew York S. aiid 10 ounce ketcluip 

l)ottles. 
Am(>rican Can Com])any.]'>altimore, .Maryland .. .Tin cans. 
I'liiladeli)hia, I'eiina. 
Xew ^'ork City. 
Cliicafio. Illinois 
Atlanta, neorpia. 
Ball Brothers Class Man- 

ufacturinj; Company . . Muncie. Indiana Mason and glass .top jars. 

Boston Woven Hose and 

Rubber Company Boston, ^rassachusctts . .Buliher rinps. 

Chesapeake Class Com- 
pany lialtimore, Maryland . . . Class jars. 



APPENDIX 



381 



Continental Can Com- 
pany Chicago, Illinois Tin cans. ♦ 

Hazel-Atlas Glass Com- 
pany Wlieeling, West Virginia. Fruit jars and tumblers. 

Hemingray Glass Com- 
pany Covington, Kentuclvy . . . Glass jars. 

Kerr Glass JNlanufactur- 

ing Company Sand Springs, Oklalioma. Economy jars. 

Marion Flint Glass Com- 
pany Marion, Indiana. 

Revson, Frank Atlanta, Georgia ]?ottles. 

Robins, A. K., & Co Baltimore, Maryland ...Tin cans and o-cneral 

e(iuipment. 
Savannah Womlen-w arc 

Company Savannah, (icorgia Glass jars. 

Schloss, Sen San Francisco, Calif. . . .Two-piece top jars. 

Smalley Fruit Jar Com- 
pany Boston, Massachusetts . .Queen glass jars. 

Southern Can Company. .Baltimore, Maryland . . .Tin cans. 
Staunton Jar Corpora- 
tion Buffalo, New York Vacuum seal jars. 

Ellicott Square. 
Tennessee Can Company. Chattanooga, Tennessee. Tin cans. 
Thatcher Manufacturing 

Company Elmira, New York Glass jars. 

Travis Glass Company. .Clarksburg, Virginia ...Glass jars. 
United States Can Com- 
pany Cincinnati, Ohio Tin cans. 

Virginia Can Company. . Buchanan, Virginia ....Tin cans. 
Western Stoneware Com- 
pany Monmouth, Illinois .... Earthenware jars. 

White Crown Fruit Jar 

Company Louisville, Kentucky . . . White Crown screw caps 

for Mason jars. 
National Can Company. Baltimore, Maryland ...Tin cans. 

Tvler Can Company. .. .Philadelphia, Pa Tin cans. 

Phillips Can Company . .Cambridge, ^Maryland ..Tin cans. 

Wheeling Can Co Wheeling, W. Va. 

Colonial Can Company. .Boston, Mass Tin cans. 

120 Milk St. 
Owensboro Cannuig Co..Owensboro, Kentucky ..Tin cans. 
Alal)ama Marketing & 

Canning Co Birmingham, Alabama . .Tin cans. 

2130 IMorris Avenue. 



:J8-^ sraKSSFlL CANMNC AM) l'i:KSi;il\LNe; 

A. K. Koldiis & ('(» r.altiiiicMc, .Mar_\ land .. Tin cans. 

'ilif SmUliwt'.storn lU'c 

l'i>m|iany San Aulimio, I Vxiis . . . .'J in tunsj. 

■2U.tC, S. MnlfS St. 
I) w (■ n s r.Dttlo-.Minliiiic 

t'oriipaiiy Toliilo, Oiini Hottlcs. 

'luintT UrotlicTs (oni- 

I'iiny 'I'cnc Ilaiiti', Indiana .. I'.<.ttli-.s and iircscrve jars. 

'J lu' (unihi'rland (ila.ss 

.Mfjr. ('()in|iany Urid^rctnn. X-w dcrscy. . I'.olt !.•> ami |ircsfivo jars. 

The JJionni Jar Co Wcdlshurj,', W. \a (iia^s jars. 

I'cnnsyhania (ila^s Co. . ( liarlcston. \\ . \a (;la>s jars. 

r.oiiMi Stewart Co Dallas. Ifxas ItuliixT rin;,'s. 

Till- \\ . U. ScluK'lVr Co. .ToU'du, Ohio U u 1) b c r rin;.'s and 

wrcnclK'.s. 
Sinallcy, Kivlan & On- 

tliaid< Co r.o.ston, .Mass Knlilx-r i in;,'.s. 

The Kcarns-(;orsiuh Uot- 

tle Company Zancsvillc Ohio liottlcs and jars. 

United States Glass Co. . I'ittsl)iirj,'h. Pa (ars. 

The Mec'lianieal Kuhhcr 

Company Cleveland. Ohio lluhhcr rinps. 

Vegetable and Fruit Dryinfj IJ(/uii>mcnt for ('oimturcial ami llotnc Use 

Allen Fruit Company ..Salem, Oreg'on. 

I'.eek I'ivaporator Com- 
pany WatsoTiville, California. 

Boutell Manufaeturing 

Company Rochester, New York. 

I'llymyer Iron Works 

Company Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Caledonia Bean Harvest- 
er WOrks Caledonia. \(m\- ^'l>rk. 

Devine, J. P., Company. .Buffalo, New ^'()rk. 

Fahrney, E. B Waynesboro. Pa. 

Field, J. A., & Co St. Louis, Missouri. 

Gth and Howard Sts. 

Caylord. F. D Sodus Boint, New York. Furnaces. 

Cj^eneral ilehydrator Com- 
pany Xew York City. N. Y. 

11 4-11 S Liberty St. 

Goodrich, A. C, & Co... North Yamliill. Oregon. 

Cranfrer Manufacturinpr 

Company Pliiladelphia, Pa. 

Harrison Rich Carrolites, California. 



APPENDIX 383 

Miller, F. H Caledonia, New York . . . Furnaces. 

Munsville Plow Company.Munsville, New York. 

Palmer & Co Noble, Illinois. 

Sebastian Brothers Odin, Illinois. 

Smith's E., Sons Buflalo, New York. 

Seeley, D. W Sodus Point, New York. . Furnaces. 

Shaver, H. W Sodus Point, New York. .FurnacL's. 

Southern Canner and 

Evaporator Company. Chattanooga. Tennessee. 

Sperry. D. R., & Co North Aurora, Illinois. 

Steam Heat Evaporating 

Company Charlotte, Michigan. 

Stutzman Manufacturing 

Company Ligonier, Indiana. 

Trescott, W. A Fairport, New York. 

The Preeht Company . . . St. Louis, Missouri Driers. 

12th and Cass Ave. 
Harry Bentz Engineering 

Company New York City. 

90 West Street. 

Miscellaneous (\}irugated Vardhoard Containers 

American Paper Products Company.. St. Louis, Missouri, 20.5 Bremen Ave, 

Andrew Paper Box Comjiany Chattanooga, Tennessee. 

Ihiipire Printing and Box Company. Atlanta, Georgia. 
Hinde & Daucli Paper Company ....Sandusky, Ohio. 

LaFore Foster Company Philadelphia, Pa., 1211 Noble St. 

Lawrence Pai>er Manufacturing Com- 
pany Lawrence, Kansas. 

Mid-West Box Company Anderson, Indiana. 

IJobert Gair Company Brooklyn, New York. 

Scfton ^lanufacturing Company ....Chicago, Illinois, l.'iOl West Soth St. 

Thompson & Norris Company Boston, Massachusetts. 

Brooklyn, N. Y"., Prince and Concord 
Sts. " 
, Brookville, Indiana. 

Cardboard Paraffin-coated Containers 

American Can Company New Y^'ork City, N. Y^., 447 W. 14th St. 

American ]\Iono-Service Company ...Newark, New Jersey. 

Purity Paper Bottle Company Washington, D. C, 1.341 S. Capitol St. 

Sanitary Paper liottle Company ....Sandusky, Ohio. 

Weis Manufacturing Company Monroe, Michigan. 

Wyle, T. Wilson Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 



INDEX 



Accounts for canners, blanks and 

directions, 314, 315 
Accuracy, special equipment for, 

37-39 
Acetic acid formation in vinegar, 
111, 113 
in vinegar, law require- 
ments, 109, 115 
loss in vinegar making, 114 
percentage in 60-grain vin- 
egar, 20G 
fermentation of vinegar, 113, 
117 
Acid, addition to sweet juices in 
jelly making, 17(), 177 
essential in fruit jelly making, 
175 
Acidity test for pickling brine, 194 
Acids, injurious to bacterial growth, 

29 
Address list, institutions directing 
extension work, 370 
lists, firms having canning out- 
fits, etc., 378-383 
Aerobes, nature and action on food- 

stuflfs, 25-27 
Agricultural extension work, insti- 
tutions directing, list, 370-378 
Air, exclusion from pickle brine, 

directions, 194, 195 
Alcohol formation in vinegar, 110, 
111 
test for pectin in fruit juices, 

177 
use in protecting jelly from 
mold, 184 
25 385 



Ak'(.)liolic fermentation in vinegar, 

112, 116 
America, canning introchulioii and 

development, 5, 6 
Anaerobes, nature and action on 

foodstuffs, 25-28 
Antiseptics, objectionable in foods, 

31,32 
Apollinaris tea, recipe, 121 
Appendix, 370-383 
Appert, Nicholas, studies and experi- 
ments in canning foods, 1, 2 
Apple butter, recipe and directions, 
168 
chutney, recipes and directions, 

207 
cores and skins, drying and use, 

238 
juice testing, 179-181 

use with other flavors and 
colors for jelly, 180, 187 
preserves, recipe and directions, 

157, 158 
sauce canning, 124 
syrup, directions for making, 
104, 105 
Apples, canning, directions, 124 

drying, directions, 230, 237, 238 
sugar content, relation to vin- 
egar making. 111, 112 
Appropriations, state and federal, 

for demonstration work, 283 
Apricots, syrup making, directions, 
108 
drying, directions, 238 
Apron for garden work, '289 

housewife's, significance, 286 



:{sc. 



INDKX 



Ajuoiis for rimningi'lul) f^irlrt, 2S7, 

288 
Artichoke pickle, recipe, 221 
Artieliokes, ciiimin;,', ilireetion>, l.i:i, 

134 
Asparagus caiiiiiiig. directions, 1.5.J 
Aspcnjillus, injuriniis fwiii^'us, 17 
Atlantic Coast, canning,' industry, (J 

15. S. chutney, recipe iiiul directions, 

200, 2U7 
liacou pickle iu brine, 204 

sugar-cured, directions, 203, 204 

Bacteria, aerobic and anaerobic, 

classification and action, 25- 

28 

harmful to cucumber pickles, 

194 
in cucumber pickling, 104 
in resting stage, resistance, 21, 

22 
nature, growth, and control, 20- 

23, 25-28 
nonsporulating, destruction, by 

boiling temperature, 21, 27 
relation to canning, importance, 
0, 12 
to vinegar making, 110. 
114 
substances injurious to, 29 
Bacteriology as applied to canning, 

15-35 
liacillus butyricus, illustration, 24 
Jiacillus found on tomatoes, show- 
ing flagellcT, illustration, 19 
Bacillus megatherium, illustration, 

26 
r>alling hydrometer, description, 131 
Baltimore, canning industry, begin- 
ning, 5 
I'.anner of Spain chutney, recipe and 

directions, 206, 207 
Banks, earth, for storing root vege- 
tables, 251-252 



'.!u krt, iiiedirinal. Helling to drug- 
gists, 250 
Jurrela, use in < neuinlicr brining, 

ininging and turning, 195, 190 
tasement storage room for vege- 
tables, 251 
'.;i.sket, fruit-press, description, 95 
liuldiiig cans or jars for proc- 
essing, 80 
'..ly. sweet. leave~. drying, 24!t 
iciiiis, canned, grades, 307 

canning, directions, 134, 135 
dried, cooking, 247 
fermenting, directions, 215 
green, string, drying directions, 

243 
heat destruction of vitality for 

seed use, 243 
protein source, 270, 279 
shelled, drying directions, 243 
sterilization, intermittent, for 

control of bacteria, 22, 23 
storage, 254 
Beef casings, 208 

corned, canning directions, 354 

directions, 25S, 259 
drying, directions, 259, 200 
preserving, methods, 258-2G0 
roast, canning directions, 352 
Beets drying, directions, 244 
fermenting, directions, 215 
pickled, recipe, 221 
small, canning directions, 135 
Berries, canned, grading. 307 

canning, directions, 124, 125 
drying, directions, 238, 239 
preserving, general directions, 

154 
washing, directions, 125 
Berry shrub, directions for making, 

119 
r.ibliography, 13, 35, 58, 85. 80, 122, 
123, 147, ISS, 227, 255, 274, 281, 
344, 345 



INDEX 



387 



I'.irds, canning directions, 365 
Blackberry .tiuminery, recipe, 121 
Blanching, directions, 62, 63 
utensils, 38, 39 
vegetables for drying, 242 
Bloomers for garden work, 288, 289 
Boiling ham, recipe (Virginia and 
Louisiana combination), 273 
temperature, destructive to bac- 
teria in growing state, 21, 27 
Bologna sausage, canning, 300 

directions, 267, 208 
Bones, utilization, 350 
Bottles, sterilizing, 98 
Bottling fruit juices, 99, 100 

grape syrup, 108 
Brains, animals', preparation for 

canning, 350 
Brands for canned goods, import- 
ance, 306 
Breakfast bacon, sugar-cured, direc- 
tions, 263, 264 
Brine, acidity test, 194 

for corned beef, directions, 258, 

259 
for cucumbers, making and test- 
ing, 192 
for curing meats, directions, 

258, 260 
for picking bacon and hams, 

264 
sealing from air, directions, 

194, 195 
use in canning vegetables, 133 
Brines, salt percentage table, 192 
Brining cauliflower, directions, 213, 
214 
onions, directions, 215 
principles and directions, 190, 
191 
Brown, Margaret and Mary Belle, 

success in canning work. 305 
Bulletins for women county agents, 
Oklahoma, 321 



Business side of canning, 300-315 
Butters, fruit, general directions, 
164, 105 

Cabbage drying, directions, 245 

storage methods, 252 
Calcium chloride, addition to water- 
bath to raise temperature, 9 
California, fruit and vegetable can- 
ning, 5 
drying, 241 

open-air drying of foods, 229, 
232 
Candied fruits, directions, IGl, 162 
Cane paddle, use in canning, 38, 71, 

72,74 
Canned goods grading, 307 

selling, work by North 
Carolina canning clubs, 
300-306 
products, consumption and 
value, 1916, 11 
score card, general, 340 
storing, 76 
Canner, commercial, outfits, 77-82 

homemade. 77 
Canneries, early, establishment and 

rapid increase, 5 
Canners, steam, for home use, 87- 

90 
Canning, bacteriology of, 15-35 
beginning in England, 3 
business side of, 300-315 
club exhibit. North Carolina 
State Fair, 1915, 313 
organization, 282-299 
work. North Carolina, sum- 
mary, 1912-1916, 306 
clubs, initial work, 283, 285 
members, 1916, 296 
Oklahoma, outlined pro- 
gram, 320 
output, 1916, 11, 296 



3«8 



INDKX 



C'niiiiin'<;, coiiiriuTciul, iiitrodiiclioii 
and (levelopiiuMit in Ainirica, 
."), (i 
equiiinicnt and prt'iiaration fur. 

improvements, 8-11 
importance in supplying vari(<l 

diet, 12 
in glass, 71-70 
in large containers, 48 
in tin, 50-70 
industry, location and dovclof)- 

ment, G-8 
laws, information, 09 
meats and sea foods, 348-375 
outfits and supplies, firms, ad- 
dress list. 378-383 
scientific, history, 1-14 
teacliing, scliool coiirses, etc., 

310-345 
time-table, processing by steam, 

91 
time-tables, hot-water process, 
83-85 
Cans, cooling and protecting. 43 
sanitary, description, 49 
sealing, tools, 50, 51 
testing, 68 

tin, manufacturing, early and 
present methods, 3, 4 
Cantaloupe pickles, recipes, 222, 

223 
Canvas for meat, yellow wash, 

recipe, 272, ^73 
Capping bottles, directions, 102 

tin cans, 64 
Caps, adjusting on glass jars, 74 
Carbonate of lime, use in making 

fruit syrups 104, 107 
Cafrots canning, directions, 135 
drying, directions, 244 
sweet pickled, 221 
Casings, sausage, cleaning and pre- 
paring, 208 



Caulillovver brining, directions, 213, 

214 
Caves for storing vegetables, direc- 
tions for making, 25;{ 
Celery leaves, drying, directions, 
24(5 
storage, 252, 253 
vinegar, recipe, 220 
Cellar, storage of vegetables, 251 
Cellars, outdoor, for storing vege- 
tables, directions, 253 
( ereals, substitute for bread. 278 

used with meats in canning, 351 
Cbayotes fermenting, directions, 215 
sweet pickled, recipe and di- 
rections, 223, 224 
Cheese, head, directions, 204 
Chemicals added to foods, detri- 
mental to health, 31, 32 
Chemistry Bureau, Agricultural 
Department, experiments in 
drying foods, 230 
of vinegar making, 110, 111 
Cherries canning, directions, 125 
(living, directions, 240 
spiced, directions, 225 
vinegarette, recipe and direc- 
tions, 160 
Cherry preserves, recipe and direc- 
tions, 155, 160 
Chicago, meat canning. 
Chicken, canning recipes, 303-305 
Cliildren's diet, importance of fruits 

and vegetables. 277 
Chile peppers canning, directions, 

140 
Chili sauce, recipe and directions, 

211,212 
Chimney for outdoor canner, 82 
Chow-chow, sweet pepper, recipe 

and directions. 200 
Cliowder, clam, canning. 374 
( butnevs. definition, recipes and di- 
rections, 190, 206, 207 
Cider making, directions. 103. 104 



INDEX 



389 



Cincinnati, canning industry, begin- 
ning, 5 • 
Cities, gardening and canning, 322 
Clam chowder canning, 374 
Clarifying fats, 357 

grape juice, 117, 118 
Cleanliness, importance in control 

of bacteria, 6 
Cleveland school gardens, 323, 324 
Clock, necessity for accurate work, 

38 
Club members, assistance to one an- 
other, instances, 293, 294 
work, cooperation of home and 
school, 292, 293 
Clubs, canning, organization, 282- 
299 
See also Canning clubs. 
Cold storage, use in food preserva- 
tion, 33 
Cold-pack method, definition, 88 
Color, preserving in blanching, 03 
Coloring for jellies, note, 187, 188 
Community activities, benefits of 

club work, 293, 294 
Concentrated cider making, 103 
Concord grape juice, directions, 119 
Conserves, description, 165 

marmalades and jams, 163-173 
Containers, estimating and order- 
ing, suggestions, 45, 50 
for canning meat and fish, 349 
packed, demonstration work, 

number and value, 296 
sterilizing before packing, 63, 

64 
types, description, 44-57 
Conveniences, home, results of dem- 
onstration work, 296, 297 
Cooker, agitating, description, 10 

See also Canner; Processor 
Cooking dried fruits and vegetables, 
directions, 242, 247 



Cooking jelly, general directions, 
182, 183 
preserves, syrup density, etc., 
148-150 
Cook-stove drier, homemade, direc- 
tions for making, 235, 23G 
Cooling cans, directions, 68 

preserves, directions, 150, 151 
Cooperation between home and 
school, 292, 293 
community, increased by club 

work, 293 
in growing herbs, desirability, 

248 
method of minimizing labor, 
39-41 
Copper and steel, cleaning and tin- 
ning, directions, 59, 60 
Corking fruit juices, 100 
Corks, cleaning and sterilizing, 100 
Corn, canned, annual consumption, 
report, 1916, 11 
canning, directions, 137, 138 
earliest record, Portland, 

]\Iaine, 5 
equipment, improvement, 

8, 9 
location of leading supply, 7 
methods, 5 
relish, recipe and directions, 

205 
sterilization, intermittent, for 

control of bacteria, 22, 23 
sweet, drying, directions, 244 
Corned beef, canning directions, 354 
Covers for jelly glasses, 184 
Crab meat, canning directions, 373 
Crabapple marmalade, directions, 

166 
Crabapples, spiced, recipe, 222 
Cracklings, utilization, 357 
Cranberry ketchup, recipe and di- 
I rections, 211 



:Ji)o 



INDKX 



Lroolc same caimii'g, diifctions, 

14r)-147 
Ciop-s, jdolitalile to ;,'irl laiiiiirH, 

311, 312 
(rout. Sec .Saucr kraut. 
Crystals, tartaric acid, pii-vcntioii 

in ji'ily, 100 
I'ueunibor and red pciJiK-r, sweet 
pickles, 199, 2U0 
slices, pickled, 198 
sweet pickles, 198 
CucuinluTs, i)iiMini,', 191, 192, 19r>. 
190 
ferinentinj;, 21.") 
grading for pickles, 192, 193 
l)ickling, general directions and 
recipes, 191-200 
Curing meats, general directions, 

257, 2r>8 
Currant cherry preserves, direc- 
tions, 155 
Currants, spiced, directions, 224 

Daggett, Ezra, canning industry es- 
tablishment in United States, 5 
Dairy equipment improvement un- 
der demonstration work, 297 
Damson plums, spiced, directions. 

225 
Demonstration work among farm 
women, results, 29.">-298 
of clul) ,i;irls. 2S."). 2S(1 
Desserts made with fruit juices. 

119-121 
Dial gauge on steam canner, SO 
Diet, need of fruits and vegetables 
supplied bj' canning, 12 
use of fruits and vegetables, 

275-281 
varied, importance, 12, 280 
Dill pickles, directions, 190, 213, 214 
Dispatch in preserving when fresh, 
importance, 25, 61, 151 



i'ixic relish, recipe and directionH, 

204 
Dried fruit, cooking, 242 

sorting and storage, 241 
vegetables cooking, use in houps, 
etc., 247 
reheating, 24(j 
storing 24G, 247 
Drier, community, directions for 

Ijuilding and heating, 234-235 
Driers, fruit and vegetal)le, <lescrip 
tion and use, 233-230 
homemaile, directions, 23.3-230 
Drippings, piei)aration and u-es, 3.'i<i. 

.'!.■) 7 
Dry kiln, homemade, description 

and use, 229 
Drying equipment, firms, address 
list, 382 
food preservation method, prin- 
ciples, 30 
foods, general methods, 228-230 
fruits, vegetables, and herbs, 

228-255 
herbs, directions and time- 
tables, 248, 249 
meats, general principles, 250 
Durrand, Peter, English patent for 
canning in tin, 3 

Egg circles, work and number, 290 
Electric fan, use in drying food, ex- 

perin)ents, 230 
Enamel-lined cans, description and 
advantages, 48 
necessary for certain prod- 
ucts, 124, 120, 128, 138, 
142 
I'^nergj', sources in foods, 275 
England, early history of canning, 3 
English mushroom ketchup, 210 
Enzymes, nature, and efTects on 
food, 24, 25 



INDEX 



3!)1 



Equipment and preparation for can- 
ning, 3(3-58 
canning, improvements and in- 
ventions, 8-11 
for canning meat and lish, :54!) 
for girl's garden work, 289, 290 
for portable outdoor canner, 79 
special, foi' preserving, 151, 152 
Evaporating, method of drying 

foods, 229 
Evaporators, descriptions, citations, 
230 
fruit and vegetable, description 
and use, 233-236 
Exhausting canned meats, 351-352 

tin cans, directions, 64, 65 
Exhibits, prize, illustrations and 

suggestions, 336-339 
Extension of useful information by 
home demonstrators, 298 
work, address list of institu- 
tions directing, 376-378 
Extracting fruit juices for jelly, 
175-178 

Fancy packs of jelly, 186 
Fats, rendering, straining, and clari- 
fying, 356-358 
use in soap making, 358 
utilization, 356-358 
Feet, animal, utilization for gelatin, 

350 
Feli, drying and use, 249 
Fermentation, cause, 15 

destructive in vinegar making, 

cause, 114 
forms and processes, 19, 20 
in pickling brine, necessity and 

result, 194 
in vinegar making, 112, 114, 116 
use in preserving vegetables, 
215-220 



Fig canning, directions, 125, 120 
conserve, recipe and directions, 

170 
jam, directions, 167 
paste, directions, 171 
preserves, recipes and direc- 
tions, 159 
Figs, drying in California, 240 

sweet jjickle, recijjc and direc- 
tions, 224 
Filter, fruit-juice, homemade, 98 
Financing demonstration work, 282- 

284 
Fire-box built in, outdoor canners, 

90 
Fireless cookers, installed in farm 

homes, 296 
Fire-pot for heating canning tools, 

48, 82, 83 
Firms furnisliing supplies for can- 
ning and preserving, address list, 
378-383 
First-year work for girls' canning 

clubs, 286-290, 318, 319 
Fish cakes and dumplings, canning, 
370 
canning, earliest record in 
America, 5 
directions, 349, 368-373 
forced, cakes, canning, 370 
selection for canning, 349 
spoilage, cause and prevention, 
348-349 
" Flat sours," cause and appear- 
ance, 26-28 
Flavoring sauces from fruit syrups, 

uses, 108 
Flux, making, and use, directions, 

59, 64, 66 
Fly campaigns, demonstration work, 

297 
Fly-trap, homemade, illustrations, 
43,44 



■M: 



IM)i;.\ 



I'ly traps, rosiilts of domonstration 
work, '2!)7 
1180 near canning locality, 4U 
Foic gras piislc, canning, 3<il 
Food, drying, protection from rain, 
dust and insects, 2;j:j. 240 
laws, knowledge needed in coni- 

niercial canning, (»!• 
partially cooked, good medium 

for germs, 27 
preparation demonstration 

work, results, 296 
preserving methods, old and 

new, 1, 29-33 
spoilage, theories of early can- 
ners, 1, 2, G 
cause, discovery, 4, 5 
Foods, canned, consumption and 
value, 191G, 11 
increased demand, 11 
classes supplying needs of body, 

275,276 
drying, general metliods, 228- 
236 
Foodstuffs, putrefaction, causes, 4, 

5, 15, 20-28 
Fourth-year canning club course, 

319 
Fowl, roast, canning directions, 302 
F'ricasseed chicken, canning direc- 
tions, 304 
F'ried chicken, canning directions, 
363 
fish, canning, 370 
Fruit butters and pastes, general 
directions, 108-109 
cup, directions for making, 11!) 
driers or evaporators, descrip- 
tion and use, 233-236 
juice, extracting for beverages, 

119 
juices, corking and sealing, ino. 
101 



Iriiit juices, pxtraf-ting fi>r jelly 
nuiking, 170-17N 
heating, 99, 100 
homemade filter, descrip- 
tion, 98 
pasteurizing, 100 
preparation, bottling, stor- 
ing, etc., 9.3-123 
reheating and bottling, 99, 

100 
testing in jelly making, 

178, 179 
uses, recipes, 119-121 
value and use, 93 
medley conserve, recipe and di- 
rections, 109 
nectar, directions, 121 
pastes, general directions, 170- 

171 
press, homemade, construction 
and use, 94-97 
household, 94 
punch, directions for making. 

120 
roll, dii'ections, 172 
Fruits and vegetables, use in the 
diet, 275-281 
candied, directions, 101, 162 
canning, directions, 124-132 
time-table, hot-water proc- 
ess, 84, 85 
cooking to extract juice, 175, 

176 
crushing and straining, 95, 96 
dried, storage, 241 
drying, directions, 231, 237-241 
for canning, 124-132 
importance in diet, 12 
liability to molds, 17 
nonpedin, 174, 175, lS(i 
packing in glass jars, 71 
jiicking, sorting, and cleaning, 
93, 94 



INDEX 



393 



Fruits, preparation for canning, 
scalding, peeling, and blanch- 
ing, IJ1-U3 
prompt canning important to 

success, 24 
properties necessary for jelly 

making, 17-4, 175 
selection, sorting and grading, 

60,61 
spiced, recipes, 222-226 
underripe, use in jelly making, 

175 
washing, peeling, coring, etc., 
utensils, 36, 37 
Free-run juice, superiority, 96-98, 

106 
French method of drying green 
vegetables, 230, 231 
government, work in discovery 
of canning methods, 1, 2 
Fuel for smokehouse, and directions 

for fire, 271 
Fungi, injurious to fruits and vege- 
tables, 17 

(iame fats, rendering and uses, 358 
Garden kneeling pad and apron, 289, 

290 
Gardening in cities, 322 
Gasoline stove for canning, 82-90 
Gauge, dial, steam cooker, 89, 90 
Gelatin from feet of food animals, 

350 
General Education Board, help to 

demonstration work, 282 
Germs causing putrefaction, nature 

and control, 20-28 
Ginger apples, directions, 157 

pears, directions, 157 
Girls' club meetings, program, sug- 
gestions, 290-292 
»S'ee also Canning clubs 
Girls, fine marketing records for 

canned goods, 305 



Girls, responsibility for their own 

canned products, 301-303, 310 
Glass, canning in, 71-76 

containers, shapes, sizes, and 

types, 52-57 
first use in canning, 2, 3 
jars, packing for shipment, 312, 
313 
selection, 52, 53 
sterilizing, 71 
testing the seals, 28, 29 
Glasses, jelly, filling and covering, 

183, 184 
Golden pumpkin chips, directions, 

158 
Goldthwaite, Miss, mention, 188 
Gooseberries canning, directions, 
126 
spiced, recipe and directions, 
224 
Goulash, Hungarian, recipe, 355 
Green mango pickles, recipe and di- 
rections, 208 
tomato pickle, recipe and direc- 
tions, 201 
Greens, canning, directions, 143 
Grading canned goods, 307 

cucumbers for pickling, 192, 

193 
fruits and vegetables, 60, 61 
(J rape butter, recipe and directions, 
168 
conserve, recipe, 170 
cup, directions, 119 
frappe, directions, 121 
jam, directions, 167 
juice bottling, 117 

clarifying, 117, 118 
heating in syrup making, 

107 
straining methods for bever- 
age or jelly stock, 110 
ketchup, recipe and directions, 
210 



304 



INDKX 



(irajtc, iiiiiifi- iiicat, ri'i-ijio and dirrc 
ti(»iis, 17.'{ 
past*' or fniil roll, (lirf(lioii>>, 

172 
>yni|>, (iiic'cliuiis, lOli-lOS 
CJrapefriiit inarinaladL', directions, 

lG(i 
CJnipes, spiced, direcUons, 224 
crushing and pressing, lOG 
greon, poctin content, 118 
(Jnava huttiT, directions, KiS 
need of acid in jelly, 175 
(iumlio, tliicken, canning, .'iO.") 

I lam linking, ncipc, 273 

lioiling, recipe (Virginia and 

Louisiana combination), 273 

cutting, salting, and smoking, 

261-2G3 
fat utilization, 358 
roast, canning directions, 353 
Hams, pickling in brine, 2G4 
Hare, jugged, canning, 308 
Hawaii, pineapple canning, rapid 

development, 7, 8 
Head cheese, canning recipe, 35t) 

directions, 2G4 
Heads, animal, canning, preparation. 

350, 350 
Health, importance of vegetable 

food in diet, 277-279 
Heat, use in food preparation. 

methods, 32, 33 
Heating community drier, device-, 
235 
grape juice for syrup, 107 
Herb bouquet or " bouquet garni," 

248 
Herbs, drying, directions, 248-250 
importance in cooking, 248 
use in confectionery and per 
fuinery, 249 
in medicine, possibilities, 
list, 250 



lli-rini'tie seal jar, dc-icrijition and 

use, 55, 50, 74, 7G 
History of develoi)m<'nt of scientific 

canning, 1-14 
Hog casings, 2G8 

liver j)astp, recipe, 301 
Home conveniences, in.stallation in 
farm homes, 29G, 297 
demonstration agents attending 
national meeting, Wash- 
ington, 1). C, 284 
clubs, canning, outjiut, 

1910, 11, 2!»(i 
coursr-. Pt-ab(Kly College, ex- 
hibit, 340 
work for women, Oklahoma, 
321 
object, funds, agents, 
etc., 282-299 
economics work, expenditures, 
sources and amounts, 283, 284 
storage of vegetables, 250-254 
vinegar making, 109-117 
Homemade canner, 77 

conveniences, results of demon- 
stration work, 290, 297 
driers, description and direc- 
tions, 233-23G 
ily-trap, illustration, 43, 44 
fruit-press, construction and 

use, 94-97 
fruit-juice filter, description, 98 
sealing wax, recipe, 101 
Hominy, lye, preparation and can- 
ning, 138, 139 
lliiiigarian goulash, recipe, 355 
Hydraulic pressure, use in drying 
foods, 230 

leolcss refrigerators, demonstration 

work, results, 290 
Ices, fruit, directions for making, 

120 



INDEX 



395 



Illinois, canning industry, 7 
Indoor canning, arrangement of 
equipment, 36, 37 
drying, commercial methods, 230 
Intermittent processing, definition 

and direction, 22. 23. 7(!, S3, 88 
Invoice for shipments of canned 

goods, 313 
Iron in vegetable foods, 277 

Jams, general directions, 163, 164 
grading, 307 

marmalades and preserves, 163- 
173 
Jar lifters, description and use, 39 
Jars, glass, selection, 52, 53 

stoneware, description, 56 
Jellies, fancy, use of pectin, flavor- 
ing, etc., 186 
storing, 185 
Jellometer, description and use, 180 
Jelly cooking, quantity of juice, 17!) 
general directions, 181, 182 
crystals, prevention, 100 
making, 175-188 
pouring into glasses and cover- 
ing, 183, 184 
protection from mold, 18, 30, 

184, 185 
qualities essential to good prod- 
uct, 174 
score card, 342 
storing, 185 

testing, directions, 183-184 

" weeping," prevention, 185 

Jobber, selling to, in marketing 

canned goods, 311 
Judging canned products, 341 
Jugged hare, canning, 368 
Juices, fruit, bottling for jelly mak- 
ing, 99, 100 
extraction, methods, 94-90 
See also Fruit juices 



Kansas City, meat canning, 6 
Kerosene stove, gas- flame, use in 

canning, 82-90 
Ketchup, definition, recipes, and di- 
rections, 190, 209-211 
grading, 307 
Kettle, steam-jacketed, description, 

9, 161 
Kid, roast, canning directions, 353 
Kidneys, preparation for canning, 

350 
Kiln, dry, homemade, description 

and use, 229 
Kitchens, municipal, etc., 324, 345 
Knives, paring, selection, 36 
Kumquat marmalade, directions, 166 
preserves, recipe and directions, 
156 
Kumquats, wliole, preserves, recipe 

and directions, 156 

Lactic acid, use in preservation of 

vegetables, 29, 31 
Labelling fruit juices, 102 
glass jars, directions, 76 
jelly glasses, directions, 184 
tin cans, 68, 69 
Labels, can, importance, and printed 

contents, 308, 309 
Laboratory, small, list of supplies, 

suggestions, 334-336 
Labor-saving devices for canning, 
8-11 
results of demonstration 
work, 297 
Lamb, roast, canning directions, 353 
Lard, trj'ing out, directions, 265, 266 
Laurus nohiles, the sweet bay, 249 
Lawrence, Major, specifications for 

smokehouse, 269-273 
Laws, canned products, obtaining in- 
formation, 69 
Leaves, herb, drying, 248 



:<!Mt 



INDKX 



Leeks, drying, direclioiiH, 245 
Ivcyiil staiitlurd, vim-gar, New York, 

1U!>, \\r, 
i.iiiKin liiitliT, dirictioMs, Iti'.i 

syruj), directions, 108 
Uglitningseal jar, description, 5.!, 

r)4 
Lima ijcaiis, canning, directions, I'M) 

drying, directions, 243 
Lime carbonate, use in making fruit 
syrups, 103, 104, 107 
water, use in drying figs, 240 
Liquid smoke, formula and use, 'I'u 
\A\er pastes, recipes, 301-302 

sausage, canning, 300 
Livers, preparation for canning, 3r)0, 

300, 302 
Lumber for constructing snioke- 

liouse, list and cost, 209, 270 
Lussac, Guy, investigations of can- 
ning, and theory of food spoilage, 2 
Lye liominy, preparation and can- 
ning, 138, 139 
solution for soaking olives, 218 
use in peeling peaclies, 120 

Macedoine fruit mixture, directions, 

129 
Machine for sealing cans, 49, 51 
Machines for canning corn, improve- 
ment on old methods, 8, 9 
labor-saving, use in canning, 
8-11 
Maine, canning industrj', 7 
Malate of lime, settling in apple 

syrup, 105 
Malic acid, disapj)earance from vine- 
gar, 114, 115 
removal from apple juice, 
103, 105 
Mango, sweet, recipe and directions, 

209 
Mangoes (pickles), definition, recipes 
and directions, 190 207-209 



Marjoram, drying, directions, 249 
.Marketing canned goodh, girls' cIuIjb, 
300 
policy for canning clubs, 309, 
310 
-Marmalade, gt-ncral directions, 103 
Marmalades, jams, and conserves, 

lo:{-17r. 
Maryland, canning industry, 7 
Massacliusetts, iramingham State 

Xormal .ScIkxjI students, 180 
Meal, well-balanced, rc(|uir('mcnts, 

279, 280 
Meat canvas, yellow wash, recipe, 
272, 273 
cooling before cutting up fur 

cooking, 352 
loaf recipe, 354 

packing in can. sealing, ex- 
liausting and ])roci'ssing. 
351-3.-)2 
in smokeliouse. directions, 
271 
putted, canniii;:, :\i>:\ 
preparation for canning', ."Uii- 

350 
selection for canning, 349 
spoilage, cause and prevention, 
348-349 
Meats, canning, e(pii[)ment an<l de- 
tails, 348-300 
drying, general principles. 250 
preservation, 250-274 
should be accompanied by vege- 
table foods, 278 
smoked, keeping, 271, 272 
utilization of all jtarts of ani- 
mal, preparation, 350 
Medicinal herbs, gathering and dry- 
ing. 249, 250 - 
Medley fruit conserve, recipe and 

directions, 109 
Mince-meat, green tomato, recipe and 
directions, 172, 173 



INDEX 



397 



Mince, grape, rcciiie, 173 

Mineral mtitcrials supplied by foods, 

275, 276 
Mint drying, directions, 249 

jelly, directions, 187 
Mississippi normal-school garden 

work, 332 
Mixed pickles, definition, recipes, 

and directions, ICO, 200-204 
Mixtures, fruit, canning, directions, 

129 
Mock olives, directions, 220 
^lold prevention in canned foods, 
jellies, etc., 18, 30, 151, 1S3, 184 
Molds, nature, growth, injury tu 

food, and control, 15-19 
Money crops for girls' canning gar 

dens, 311, 312 
" Mother," vinegar, addition in vine- 
gar making, 113 
Muscadine grape syrup, directions 

for making, lOG-108 
IMushroom ketchup, English, recipe 

and directions, 210 . 
Mushrooms, drying directions, 240 

pickled, directions, 220 
Mustard dressing for pickles, direc- 
tions, 203 
Durham, first prepared by a 

woman, 248 
pickle, recipe and directions, 
201-204 
Mutton, roast, canning diroctions, 
353 

Navy beans, liarvesting and storing, 
254 

Nebraska, training school for volun- 
tary leaders, 333 

New Jersey, canning industry, 7 

New York, canning industry begin- 
ning, 5 



New York City, expenditures for 
milk, bread, eggs, and canned 
foods, 11 
evaporators, drying vegetables 

for French army, 230 
fruit and vegetable canning, 7 
vinegar making and legal stand- 
ard, 109-117 
Wayne county, evaporators, 
number in use, 229 
Normal schools, garden work and 

instruction, 325, 330-333 
North Carolina canning club girls, 
illustrations, 41, 42 
canning clubs, business experi- 
ences, 300-315 
county agents, illustration, 313 
Greensboro State Normal Col- 
lege, coinmunity drier, 234- 
235 
Nutrients supi)lied by foods, 275- 
280 

Oil stove for heating copper and 

steel, 43, 47 
Oklahoma, girls' clubs, })rograni, out- 
line, 320 
women's clubs, program, out- 
line, 321 
Okra canning, directions, 139 

drying, directions, 245 
Olives, brining, directions, 219 
pickling, directions, 217-220 
varieties used for pickling, 217 
washing, directions, 218, 219 
One-period method of processing, 87- 

92 
Onion vinegar recipe, 220 
Onions, brining, directions, 215 
drying, directions, 245 
pickling, 215, 216 
storing, 254 
Open kettle for processing, descrip- 
tion, 74 



308 



INDKX 



( )pori ki'ttli- iiictliiKl (if laniiin^', S7 
Oponair ilryiii;? iidapteil to dry cli- 

iiiiiti's, 2_".», •_';$•_', -i-.n 

( >riinge ice, recipe, liO 

iiiurinalade, recipe and direc- 
tions, Hi;) 
pectin, preparation, 180, 187 
peel, source of pectin. 17;") 
sour, preserves and marmalade, 
155, 105, 100 
Orangc-Icmon-grapefruit marmalade, 

recipe, 1G() 
Oregon, canning salmon, G 
Organisms causing fermentation and 

putrefaction, 15-28 
Outdoor canning, arrangement of 
tables and equipment, 40-44 
caves or cellars for storing vege- 
tables, 253 
Oxygeu, relation to bacteria. 2.')-2s 
(Oysters, canning, 373 

Packing canned goods for shipment, 
312 
containers, directions, 04 
fruit and vegetables in glass 

jars for canning, 71 
preserves, in jars, 150, 151 
Paddles, use in canning, and direc- 
tions for making, 38, 71, 72, 74 
Paddling contents of glass jars to 

exclude air, 71, 72 
ParaHin, use in scaling pickle con- 
tainers, 195 
use on jelly to prevent molds, 
184, 180 
Parasitic organisms, illustrations, 

16 
Parcels post, shipments of canned 

goods, 313 
Parsley leaves, drying, directions, 

246, 249 
Parsnips, drying, directions, 244 



I'aste for labels, formula and direc- 
tions for use, 09 
tomato, lecipc and directions, 
212 
I'jistfs, fruit, general directions, 170, 
171 
liver, canning directions, 361- 
3(i2 
Pasteur, discoveries in bacteriology, 

importance, 4, 5 
Pasteurization, use in preserving 

food, 32 
Pasteurizer made of wash boiler, 100 
Pasteurizing fruit juices, 100 
Payments for cannctl goods, man- 
agement, 313 
Peach butter, recipe and directions, 
168 
jam, recij)e and directions, 167 
preserves, recipe and directions, 

150, 157 
roll or leather, directions. 172 
Pciiches, canned, grading. 3lt7 
canning directions, 120, 127 
drying, directions, 240, 241 

in California. 241 
peeling, lye method, 126 
sweet pickled, recipes and di- 
rections, 225 
Peanut butter, recipe and directions, 

153, 109 
Pear preserves, recipe and directions, 

157 
Pears, canning, directions, 128 
drying, directions. 241 
spiced, recipe and directions, 
225 220 
Peas, canned, annual consumption, 
report, 1916, 11 
canning, directions, 139, 140 
dried, storage, 254 
green, drying, directions, 243 
sterilization, intermittent, for 
control of bacteria. 22, 23 



INDEX 



399 



Pectin developed by heat, 175 
essential in jelly making, 17;) 
orange, preparation, 18G, 187 
strawberry and orange, 187 
sources, 118, 17(> 
testing in fruit juice, 17 8- ISO 
Peeling fruits and vegetables, Gl, 02 
Penicillium, injurious fungus, 17 
Pepper mango, stull'ed, directions. 
207, 208 
relish, directions, 205 
sauce, directions, 212 
sweet, chow^-chow, 206 
Peppers and cucumbers, sweet pickle. 
199, 200 
canning, directions, 140 
drying, directions, 245-249 
Perennial gardens, for advanced club 

workers, 290 
Picking herbs for drying, 248 
Pickle, preservation by acids in- 
jurious to bacteria, 29, 31 
Pickles, recipes and directions, 196- 

209 
Pickling, directions, 189-227 

meat, formula for small pieces. 
260 
Pigeons, canning recipes, 365 
Pigs' feet, pickled, directions, 265 
Pimiento ketchup, recipe and direc- 
tions, 211 
canning, directions, 140 
Pineapple canning, Hawaii, develop- 
ment and improvement, 7, 8 
preserves, recipe and directions, 

160 
syrup, formula, 108 
Pits, outdoor, for keeping root vege- 
tables, 251, 252 
Plum conserve, recipe and directions, 
169, 170 
preserves, directions, 157 



Plums, canning, directions, 128, 129 
drying, directions, 241 
use as mock olives, directions, 
220 
Pork brining, 260, 264 

curing, smoking, and keeping, 

general directions, 261-268 
cutting and trimming, direc- 
tions, 261, 262 
preserving, directions, 261-268 
roast, canning directions, 352 
sausage cakes, canning, 360 
directions, 266, 267 
Portable canner, description, 43, 49 
Portland, Maine, early canning ex- 
periments of Isaac Winslow, 5 
Poster for canning-club products, 302 
Potted meat, canning, 363 
Poultry clubs, Oklahoma, outlined 
program, 320 
demonstration work, results, 

290 
fats, utilization and value, 358 
products, demonstration work, 
value, 296 
Preparation and equipment for can- 
ning. 36-58 
Prescott, S. C, investigations of 

canning technic, 6 
Preservation of foods, methods, 29- 
33 
of meats, 256-274 
Preservatives, harmless, use in foods, 

30 
Preserves, 148-162 

cooling and packing, 150, 151 
grading, 307 
sealing, 151 
score card, 342 
Preserving powders, use, detrimental 
to health, 31 
vegetables by fermentation, 215- 
220 



400 



iM)i:x 



I'lM'.-s. fruit. Iii.niciiiadi'. '.' I '.'7 

li'VcT, for fruit juici', loiistruc 
tioii and use. ;».') !t7 
1 'rices of tail lied proiliicts, I'.iKi- 

liiiT, :ji(», :ni 

I'ri/.e winners, stories of \V(jrk and 

use of money, li!)4 
Prizes for exiiiliits, .'343, 344 
I'rocessin^ eanned meats, '.i')\-:i')'.i 
directions, (Hi, 74, 77-!t2 
methods, advantages, 9, 10 
olives, direetions, 21!) 
one-period, at liigli temperature, 
87-92 
Processors, descriptions, 0, 10, 39 
Program, girls' eliih meetings, sug- 
gestions, 290, 291 
Protein, sources in foods, 275, 270 
Publications, United States Govern- 
ment, usefulness, 12 
S^cc also Bibliography 
Pumpkin drying, directions. 24.5 

preserves, directions, 158 
PuTupkins, canning, directions, 140- 

142 
Puncii, fruit, recipes, 120 
Putrefaction, causes, 4, 5, 1."), 20- 
28 

Questions for use in teaching, 12, 
13, 33, 34, 57, 70, 70, 83, 92, 121. 
122, 132, 147, 162, 173, 18S, 220, 
254, 274, 280, 315, 374 
Quince cheese, directions, 171 

pectin content, and need of acid 
to develop, 175 

Kabliit. canning <lircctions. 300-307 
sausage, canning, 300-307 
stew, canning recipe, 307 
Rahn, Otto, experiments witli brine 

191 
Rapidity in canning, importance. 
01-04 



IJuspbcrry ice and lloat, recipe, 120 
Kaspbcrries, drying, illustration and 

directions, 232, 238 
ittiords, canning suggestions, 315 
Mclieating fruit juice, 99 
Kelisiies, dclinition, recipes and tli- 
rections, 190. 204 200 
score card, 343 
Retorts, steam, fur processing, types, 

87, 90, 91 
Kliuliari) canning, directions, 120, 
142 
conserve, directions, 1G9 
spiced, recipe, 221 
syrup, directions, 108 
Kings, rubber, adjusting and prcca\i- 

tions, 57, 74 
iioast fowl, canning directions, 302 

pigeons, canning, 305 
Roasts, meat, canning and process- 
ing, 352-354 
Roe, fish, canning, 372 
Root artichoke pickle, 221 

vegetables, storage, 251, 252 
Roots, medicinal, 250 
Rubbers, adjusting and precautions, 

57, 74 
Rummage ])ickle. recipe and direc- 
tions, 200 
Russell, H. L., application of bac- 
teriology to canning, 5 

Saccharomcter, description and use, 

38, 120, 132, 152, 178-181 
Sadding, Mr., introduction of can- 
ning into England, 3 
Safety-valve seal jar, description, 51 
Sage drying, directions, 249 
Sales, demonstrations by canning 
club girls, 303 
direct to institutions, etc., 303 
Salmon canning, location, (i 
Salometer. description and use, 191. 
192 



INDEX 



401 



Salt, addition to water bath to raise 
temperature, 9 
percentage scale use in testing 

brine, 38 
use in preserving food, 30, 31 
Salting hams, shoulilers, and bacon, 

202 
Saltpetre, use in smoking meats, dis- 
cussion, 250, 257 
Sanitary cans, description, 49 
Saprophytes, relation to canned 

products, 15 
Sassafras leaves, drying and use as 

herb, 249 
Sauces, definition, recipes and direc- 
tions, 190, 211-213 
Sauer kraut, directions, 214 

preservation by acids injurious 
to bacteria, 29 
Sausage making, directions, 206-208 

mixed, directions, 207 
Sausages, canning, 300, 300 
Savory drying, directions, 249 
Sawmills, as market for canned 

goods, 301 
Scalding, fruits and vegetables, 01, 

02, 63 
Scales, necessity for accurate work, 

38 
Scholarships, won by club girls, 290 
School gardens, 324 
Score cards for judging products, 

use, 339-343 
Scrapple, directions, 264, 205 
Screening houses, results of demon- 
stration work, 297 
Screens, to protect food while dry- 
ing, 233 
Screw-top jars, description, 54 
Scum yeast in brine, prevention, 194 
Scuppernong grape juice, directions 

for making, 118 
Sea foods, canning, 349, 309-374 



Sf^al, importance in canning, 28 

testing, 28, 29 
Sealing canned meat, 351-352 
fruit juices, 101 
glass jars, directions, 74-70 

various devices, 53-57 
jellies, directions, 185 
preserves, 157 

sanitary cans, machine, 49-51 
wax, homemade recipe, 101 
Seals and sealers, firms, address list, 

379 
Seasoning for canned vegetables, 133 
Second-year canning club course, 319 
work for girls canning clubs, 
290 
Seeds useful in medicine, 250 
Self-fermentation, use as preserva- 
tion method, 31 
Serving, work of club girls, 280-290 
Sheep casings, 208 
Shipping canned products, 313 
Shoulders, cutting, salting, and 

smoking, 201-203 
Shrimps, canning, dry pack and wet 

pack, 372-373 
Shrub, berry, directions for making, 

119 
Skimming jelly, directions, 182, 183 
Slicing apples for drying, 237 
Smith-Lever Extension Act, 283 
Smoke, control in smokehouse, 271, 
272 
liquid, formula and method. 257 
Smoked meats, keeping, 272, 273 
Smokehouse, description, construc- 
tion, and use, 208-272 
Smoking meats, general directions, 
256, 257 
meats in smokehouse, directions, 

270-272 
pork, 203 



402 



INIJKX 



Soap iiiaUiii^', diroctiona, 358 
Suiiiiuii fliloritif, use in preserving 

food, -M, 31 
Suup fats, rlarifyiiig and use, 3r)8 
fowl, eannin;,' directions, 3t».'{ 
mixlurc, canned, grading, 307 
canning, directions, 14.") 
vegetables, drying for use of 
soldiers during war, 230 
Sour orange marmalade, recipe and 
directions, 1<)5, lOG 
preserves, directions, 155 
Soutiiern States, home work of girla 

and women, 335, 330 
Spare ribs, canning recipe, 359 
Spatula use in canning, 38 
Specifications and plans for conveni- 
ences, demonstrations, 297 
for constructing smokehouse, 
209, 270 
Spiced cucumber mango, directions, 
209 
Balad recipe and directions, 

199 
pickles, directions, 196 
damson plums and cherries, di- 
rections, 225 
fruits, recipes, 222-220 
green tomatoes, recipe, 221 
pears, formula and directions, 

225, 220 
rhubarl), recipe, 221 
vinegar, recipe, 208 
Spices for canned pumpkin, direc- 
tions, 141 
use in preserving food, 30 
Spinach canning, directions, 142, 143 
Spindle, Brix, use in testing fruit 

juices, directions, 178-180 
Spoilage cucumber pickles caused by 
bacteria, 194 
food, theories of early canners. 
1,2, 
cause, discovery, 4, 5 



."Spoilage, meat and lisli, nm^e and 

prevention, 348-349 
Spores, mold, growth and spread, 17 
yeast, distribution and control, 
20 
Square tin cans, 48 
.'~^«pjasii canning, directions, 143 

drying, directions, 245 
.St. Ivouis community canning 

kitclien, 324 
Standardizing canned goods, 301 
.Standards in canning, 300, 307 
Starter, adilition in vinegar mak- 
ing. 113-110 
State agents, liome demonstrations, 

work, results, 285, 280 
Steam canners, small, for home use, 
87-00 
gauge on canner regulation, 89, 

90 
retorts, types, description, 87- 
90 
Steamers, companies, address, 380 
Steam-jacketed kettle, description 

aiid illustration, 101 
Steam-pressure outfit for home can- 
ning, illustration, 89 
Steel and copper cleaning, direc- 
tions, 59, 00 
and tipping copper for sealing 
cans, 50, 51 
Sterilization by heat, use in food 
preservation, 32, 33 
intermittent method, 22, 23 
Sterilizing containers before pack- 
ing, 03, 04, 71, 72 
I Storage, cold, use in food preserva- 
tion, 33 
of dried fruit, 241 

vegetables, 240, 247 
of vegetables, 250-254 



INDEX 



403 



Storing bottled fruit juices, 103 
canned- products, 7G 
jellies, directions, 185 
Stove for heating tools, 82 
Stoves, kerosene and gasoline, for 

canning, 82-90 
Straining fruit juice for jelly, ITS- 
ITS 
Strauglin, Doctor, invention of jell- 

ometer, 180 
Strawberry ice, recipe, 120 

jelly with orange pectin, direc- 
tions, 187 
preserves, recipe and directions, 
154, 155 
String beans, canning, directions, 

134, 135 
Stuffed pepper mango, directions, 

207, 208 
Stuffing sausages, directions, 266, 267 
Substances supplied by diet, 275- 

280 
Suet preservation and uses, 357 
Sugar, addition to fruit juice, de- 
pendent on pectin content, 
178-180 
addition to juice in jelly mak-. 

ing, 181, 182 
hydrometer. See Saccharom- 

eter 
in apples, relation to vinegar, 

111, 112 
proportions for fruit syrups, 108 

for preserves, 153, 154 
quantity for jelly, table, 179 
syrup, table, 132 
use in preserving food, 30 
Sulfur, use in drying fruits, 230, 

231, 237 
Summer short-courses in canning, 

suggestions, 317, 318 
Sun drying of foods, 231, 232, 237 
Sun-cooked preserves, directions, 155 



Supplies for canning and preserv- 
ing, firms, address list, 378- 
383 
for small laboratory, list, 324- 
336 
Sweet bay leaves, drying, 249 
pickles, directions, 222-220 
fruits suitable for, 189 
potatoes, canning, directions, 
143 
storage, 253, 254 
'' Swells," cause, 26-65 
Syrup, apple, directions for making, 
104, 105 
density for canning various 
fruits, 124, 125, 126-128, 
129 
for preserves, 148, 150, 154, 
158, 159, 162 
making, directions, 71 
testing, 152 
Syrups, fruit, directions for making, 
103-108 



Table for testing apple juice, etc., 

for pectin, 179 
Tables, arrangement for outdoor 
canning, 40, 43, 45 
time, for processing fruits and 
vegetables, 83, 84, 85, 91 
Tarragon vinegar, recipe, 220 
Tartaric acid crystals in jelly, pre- 
vention, 100 
Teacher, cooperation with home and 

club work, 292 
Teaching canning and related ac- 
tivities, 316-345 
Temperature, raising, various de- 
vices used in open-kettle method, 9 
Testing canned goods by grocery- 
men, 303 
fruit juice, for pectin, 178-180 
jelly, directions, 183 



404 



INDKX 



Testing Boal of can, (>H 

syrup, 152 
Texas, Denton State Industrial Col- 
lege, gunlen work, .'JUH 
Tlierniouicter, use in drying food, 
242 
use in preserving and jelly mak- 
ing. .-{H, 100, ir)2, .104, 182, is;{ 
Third-year canning club courses, 31!) 
Tiiyine drying, directions, 249 
Time-table for processing by steam, 

!)1 
Time-tables, hot-water process, 83- 

85 
Tin, canning in, 59-70 

cans, early types and develop- 
ment of manufacture, 3, 4 
manufacturing, changes in 

apparatus, 3 
shapes, sizes, and styles, 44, 

51 
testing the seals, 28, 29 
container for preserving foods, 

development, 3, 4 
utensils, objections, 38, 130 
Tins, lacquered, use in canning 

meats and fish, 349 
Tipping cans, directions, 65, 6G 

copper and steel, description 
and cleaning, 50, 51, 59, 60 
Toilet soap, recipe, 359 
Tomato canning, location of industry 
and supply, 7 
green, mince-meat, recipe and 
directions, 172, 173 
pickle, recipe and direc- 
tions, 201 
ketchup, recipe and directions, 

209, 210 
paste, recipe and directions, 212 
Tomato puri'e canning, directions, 
145 
relish, uncooked, recipe and di- 
rections, 205 



Tnni.itocs, canned, annual consump- 
tion, report, 1916, 1 1 
grading, 307 
(iinning, directioiiH, 14;J-145 
green, sjticed, recipe, 221 
liability to molds, 17, 18 
yellow, preserves, recipe and di- 
rections, 159 
Tongue, cured, recipe and directions, 

200 
Tools for sealing cans, 50, 52, 59, 00 

heating, suggestions, 82, 85 
I'lays for community drier, descrip- 
tions, 235 
Turnips, canning, directions, 145 
Tyndall discoveries in bacteriology, 
importance, 4, 5 

Underwood, W. L., investigations of 
canning technic, G 

Underwood, William, early work in 
commercial canning, 5 

Uniformity in sizo and quality of 
products desirable, Gl 

Uniforms, canning-club girls', de- 
scription, 286-288 

Utah, municipal kitchens, 345 

Utensils for preparing and canning 
fruits and vegetables, 36-38 
for pickle making, 189 

Vacant lot gardening, 322 
Vacuum driers, use in drying foods, 

230 
Van Tapscott, Bettie, canning work, 

304 
Veal liver paste, recipe, 301 

roast, canning directions, 3.")3 
Vegetable driers or evaporators, de- 
scription and use, 233-238 
soup mixtures, drying, direc- 
tions, 245 
\ogetables and fruits, use in the 
diet, 275-281 



INDEX 



405 



Vegetables, canneries, location, G, 7 
canning, directions, 133-147 
time-table, hot-water proc- 
ess, 83, 85. 
processing by steam, 91 
dried, preparation for the table, 
247 
sweating, reheating and 
storing, 246, 247 
drying, directions, 242-247 

in evaporators for use of 
soldiers, 230 
for canning, 133-147 
green, drying by pressure, 

French method, 230 
home storage, 250-254 
importance in diet, 12 
packing in glass jars for can- 
ning, 71 
preparation for canning, 61-63 

for drying, 242 
preserving by fermentation, 

215-220 
processing by steam, time-table, 

91 
prompt canning, importance to 

success, 25, 61, 151 
selection, sorting, and grading, 

60, 61 
washing, peeling, etc., utensils, 
36, 37 
Ventilators, smokehouse, descrip- 
tion and need, 270, 271 
Vinegar, good, requirements, 115- 
117 
law requirements, 109, 115 
making, chemistry of, 110, 111 

directions, 108-117 
poor, causes, 115 
sixty-grain, equivalent in acetic 

acid, 206 
spiced, recipes, 208, 217 
use in preserving food, 30 



Vinegars, flavored, recipes, 220 
Virginia, normal-school garden 
work, 330, 331 
outdoor canning. dtMnonstra- 
tions, 40, 47 
Vitamins supplied by fruits and 
vegetables, 279 

Washington, salmon canning, 6 
Water-bath, original canning 

metliods, 1, 2, 9 
Watermelon rind, gingered, recipe 
and directions, 158, 159 
pickles, directions, 222 
preserves, recipe and direc- 
tions, 158 
Watts family, fine record in canning 

work, 305 
Wax, sealing, homemade recipe, 101 
Willard School Farm, gardens and 

canning work, 324-326, 328 
Winslow, Isaac, work in canning, 5 
Winter garden demonstrations, 296 
Wire basket with steam canner, de- 
scription and use, 9 
baskets for blanching fruits, 9, 
38 
Women county agents and funds 
available, 1914-1917, 284 
farm, extension w'ork, 282, 295, 
298 
Women's clubs, organization, 296 

Yeast germs, action in fermentation. 
112 
nature, growth, and reproduc- 
tion, 19, 20, 21 
scum, prevention in pickling 
brine, 194 
Yellow wash for meat canvas, recipe, 
273 

Zinc tops for jars, objections, 54 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




